方朝晖：ACRITICALREFLECTIONONTHESY

　　ABSTRACTSincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury，ChinesescholarshaveoftentendedtosplitapartandthentorearrangetraditionalChineselearningaccordingtothesystematicsofthemodernWesternacademicdisciplines。ThroughanexaminationofthemeaningofW，theauthordemonstratesthatweshouldnotbequicktolumpbothWesternandChineselearningintothesamesystematics。Moreover，ancientChineselearninghasalwayshaditsownsystematics，onewhichisextremelycomplexandwhichhasenduredwithinalongtraditionandundergonecontinualimprovementovertime。Forthisreason，ChineselearningiswellbeyondanycriticismwhichmaybeleveledatitfromthepointofviewofthesystematicsoftheWest。Evenso，modernChineseintellectualshavebecomeaccustomedtounderstandingancientChineselearningthroughtheprismofWesternlearning。
　　Sincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury，ChinesescholarshaveoftentendedtosplitapartandthentorearrangetraditionalChineselearningaccordingtothesystematicsofthemodernWesternacademicdisciplines。Mypurposeinthisessayistoexaminethistendencyfromanewpointofview。ThepapertakesforitscasethemodernhistoryofChinesescholarshipratherthanwhatishappeningelsewhereintheworld。ItdoesneitheraimatdisclosingtheproblemofconventionalacademicdisciplinaryboundariesofWesternlearning，〔2〕normerelyinsistontheimportanceofChineseancientlearninganditsowninnerlogicindependentofthatofWesternlearning。Themainpointsofthepaperareasfollows：
　　First，whileitistruethatinsomeareasChineselearningandWesternlearningcontainsimilarsubjectmatter，modernChinesescholarsareoftenunawareofessentialdifferencesbetweenChineselearningandWesternlearninginregardtotheirrespectiveinnerlogics。Thishasresultedinagreathistoricerror，thatofconferringthevarioustitlesofWesternacademicdisciplinesuponcertainpartsofancientChineselearning。TosubsumeitunderwesterndisciplinesoftenmeansthattheinnerlogicofChineselearningisobscuredanditsindependentexistenceisexploited。
　　Second，ancientChineselearninghasalwayshaditsownsystematics（seeSectionIV。below），onewhichisextremelycomplexandwhichhasenduredwithinalongtraditionandundergonecontinualimprovementovertime。Forthisreason，ChineselearningiswellbeyondanycriticismwhichmaybeleveledatitfromthepointofviewofthesystematicsoftheWest。Evenso，modernChineseintellectualshavebecomeaccustomedtounderstandingancientChineselearningthroughtheprismofWesternlearning。OneofthesadconsequencesofthistendencyisthattheidentityofChineselearninghasbeenruinedalmostbeyondrecognition。
　　I。INTRODUCTION
　　Tomymind，oneoftheoddestfeaturesoftheChineseacademyinthetwentiethcenturyistheprocessofcuttingapartandrearrangingtheancientChinesesystemsoflearningaccordingtotheacademicdisciplinesofWesternsystematics。IIntroductiontoAHistoryofChineseEthics，publishedin1910，theauthor，CaiYuanpei，statedthatthispracticewasinitiatedbytheJapanesescholars，KimuraandKubotoku，rearrangeancientChinesetheoriesofmoralswiththeprinciplesofWesternethics，andthatitwasonthebasisoftheireffortsthathewrotehisworkonthehistoryofChineseethics。〔3〕Later，thisprocesswascontinuedbyprofessorHuShiwhosebooktitled，AnOutlineoftheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy（1918），wasbasedonhisteachingsatBeijingUniversity。〔4〕ThenProfessorFungYsfamouswork，AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy（Vol。1），waspublishedin1930andbecameextremelyinfluentialinChinathemomentitwaspublished。〔5〕
　　AtmostChineseUniversitiesduringthistimeWesternmodelswerebeingusedtoestablishbothacademicdepartmentsandteachingandresearchsections。TheancientCphilosophy，ethics，economics，politics，sociology，etc。，allaccordingtothesystematicsoftheWest。Sincethen，amovementcharacterizedbythisrearrangementofancientChineselearninghasariseninmodernChina，andithasstillnotrunitscourseeventoday。Thishasresultedinaseriesofbooksentitled，AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，AHistoryofChineseEthics，AHistoryofChinesePolitics，AHistoryofChineseEconomics，AHistoryofChineseHistoricalScience，etc。Inthisway，nearlyeverybranchoflearninginthemodernWwithintheancientChinesesystemsoflearning，theonlydifferencebetweenthetwo，inthemodernChineseacademicview，appearingtobethatthesecorrespondingdisciplineshappenednottobeasmatureinChinaastheyhadbecomeintheWest。
　　Notsurprisingly，however，differedconsiderably。
　　AtypicalviewamongmodernChinesescholarsisthusthatthebiggestproblemwiththeancientChinesesystemsoflearningisthatChineselearningfallsfarbehindWesternlearning。Thisisthoughttohaveoccurredbecauseeachoftheseparateacademicdisciplinesoutlinedaboveis，intheancientChinesesystemsoflearning，confusedlymixedupwithalltheothers。Thatis，nostrictbordersordistinctionsamongallthesedifferent（Western）disciplinesareevidentintraditionalChineselearning。Forexample，thethreemostimportantConfucianclassicsofli（theThreeL：ZhouLi，YiLi，andLiJi）discussnotonlypolitics，butalsoethicsandlaw。TheChunqiuJingisaworkofhistory，butitisoftenbelievedbymodernChinesescholarstobemoreimportantaspoliticsthanashistory。TheZhouYi（oftenwritteninEnglishasChouI）canbeseenasaworkofphilosophy，butunfortunately（onthemodernview），thecosmological，epistemologicalandmethodologicalthoughtsinthisworkaresointertwinedthattheycannotbeclearlydistinguishedfromoneanotheratall。
　　ManymodernChinesescholarsthuslamentthefactthatwhileeveryprobleminConfucianthinkingwasseenasanethicalissue，intheWestmanyofthesesameproblemswereseparatedoutintoissuesacrossmanydifferentdisciplines。Accordingtothesescholars，Confucianism，ignorantofthedistinctionbetweenphilosophyandpolitics，andofthatbetweenthescienceofhistoryandthescienceoflaw，etc。，conflatesethicalproblemswithpurelypoliticalones。TheopinionsofthesemodernChinesescholarsthusbecamethedominantviewoftheChineseacademy，andattheirinsistencetheancientChinesesystemsoflearningwereaccordinglyrearrangedandreclassifiedaccordingtothemodern，butentirelyforeign，standardsoftheseWesterntheoreticaldisciplines。
　　ThisviewcanmosttypicallybefoundinCaiYsopinionsaboutethicsandphilosophy。In1910，hesaid，Highimportancehasalwaysbeenattachedtoethics，inChina，letaloneahistoryofChineseethics。〔6〕HesaidthisbecausehebelievedthatitwouldbeimpossibletowriteahistoryofChineseethicswithoutfirstunderstandingtheprinciplesofWesternphilosophyandthesciences，andthatthiswouldbesoeveniftheauthorhadreadalargenumberofEasterntheoreticaldoctrines。〔7〕In1918，healsowroteanintroductiontoHuSswork，AnOutlineoftheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，inwhichhestated：
　　AncientChineselearninghasneverbeencompiledsystematicallyinrecords。TodaywecannotcompilethemsystematicallybymeansoftheChineseancientsexceptbymeansofthecriteriaofthehistoryofWesternphilosophy。Therefore，itisimpossibleforanyonetoachievesuccessinthisworkwithoutstudyingthehistoryofWesternphilosophy。〔8〕
　　IlookforwardtothecontinuationofMr。Hsefforts，sothatacompleteoutlineofthehistoryofChinesephilosophycanbecompiled，puttingintoordertheChinesephilosophieswhichhadbeenbothmessyandrotten，bothnumerousandjumbledforthreethousandyears，providingusreadyaccesstothestudyofthehistoryofournationalphilosophy。Itwouldbeagreatpleasureforusifhecoulddoso。〔9〕
　　CsopinionshavebeensoinfluentialthateventodayChineseintellectualshaveneverattemptedtogobeyondtheframeworkofthesenotions。ThisissoevenamongthosescholarswhohavewrittenspecializedhistoriesofcertainancientChineseacademicdisciplines。Iwillnowexaminewhetherornottheseideasareappropriate。
　　II。Philosophy
　　In1930，FungYItohisAHistoryofChinesePhilosophy（Vol。1）：PhilosophyisoriginallyaWesternconcept。NowwhileIwanttodiscussthehistoryofChinesephilosophy，whatIwilldoistochoosefromthevariousancientChinesetheoriesoflearninganddescribethecorrespondingpartswhichcouldbecalledphilosophyintheWesternsense。〔10〕FungYulancontinuesbypointingoutthatforaslongasseveralthousandyearsWesternphilosophyhasgenerallybeenconcernedwiththreesubstantialdivisions：thetheoryofworld，thetheoryoflifeandthetheoryofknowledge：〔11〕
　　Ifweexaminetheproblemsstudiedbywhat，inChina，duringtheWei（A。D。220265）andChin（265420）dynasties，（hsuanhseh）；bywhatduringtheSung（A。D。9601279）andMing（13681644）（taohseh）；andbywhatduringtheCingdynasty（16441912）（ilichihhseh），wefindthattheseproblemsresembletoaconsiderabledegreethoseofwesternphilosophy。〔12〕ItisforthesereasonsthatIwillsubsequentlymakeuseofphrasessuchasChinesephilosophyandChinesephilosopher。
　　〔13〕
　　AlthoughitwasverywidelypraisedinChineseacademiccirclesafteritspublication，AHistoryofChinesePhilosophystillmetwithseriouscriticismfromJinYueling，whoatthattimewasaprofessoratNationalTsinghuaUniversityandalsooneofthemostprominentphilosophersinmodernChina。HehadstudiedWesternphilosophyforaboutnineyearsinEnglandandinotherWesterncountries，andhisattainmentsinWesternphilosophyremainamongthemostoutstandinginChina。JingYahistoryofChinesephilosophy，namely，CahistoryofCwereplausible。Interestingly，hisresponsewasasfollows：Supposeoneweretowriteabookcalled，AHistoryofEnglishPhysics。WhatshouldbediscussedinsuchabookwouldconcernthehistoryofphysicsoccurringinEngland，Ephysics，for，tobeprecise，thereisnosuchathingasEnglishphysics。〔14〕Thatis，physicsisauniversalphysics，andwhenphysicsisdiscussed，byanyoneregardlessofnationality，itmustbeidenticaltophysicsasauniversalsubject，bothinsubstanceandinform。
　　However，thisisnotthecaseconcerningphilosophy。ICW？Ifthereisauniversalphilosophy，orifwetakeEuropeanphilosophytobetheuniversalphilosophy，asmanypeople（includingFungYulanandHuShi）do，Cuniversalphilosophy，Emustbeidenticaltouniversalphysics？Unfortunately，CdescribedbyHuShiandFungYulanintheirbooksissubstantiallydifferentfromWesternphilosophywithrespecttotheintrinsiclogicofapproach，eventhoughtheyoccasionallycontainsimilarsubjectmatters。
　　ThefactthatbothancientChineselearningandWesternphilosophyhappentoconcernviewsoflife，oftheuniverseandofknowledgedoesnotinanywaysuggestthattheyaresubstantiallythesamekindoflearning。BothHuShiandFungYulanhavetakenWesternphilosophytobetheuniqueuniversalphilosophy。ButifasocalledChinesephilosophydoesexist，ttherelationshipbetweenChinesephilosophyandWesternphilosophybesimilartotherelationbetweenEnglishphysicsandphysics？JingYuelingsays：
　　Originatingfromthesamesource，thephilosophicalproblemsarisinginallEuropeancountriesappeartohavenodiscrepancy。OurpresenttendencyistotakeEuropeanphilosophyastheuniversalphilosophy。ThuswemaydeterminetowhatextentproblemsdiscussedbyChinesethinkersinthepreQinperiodarephilosophicalproblems，andifso，howpurelyphilosophicaltheyare。ThisisthepreconditionforwritingahistoryofChinesephilosophy。However，whetherthisfactistakenasimportantdependsontheopinionsofthepersonwritingthehistoryofphilosophy。Ifhepaysattentiontothesubstanceofphilosophy，ifhepaysattentiontotheformofthephilosophy，thenthisfactisnotimportantforhim。Ifhepaysallhisattentiontotheform，thenallhumanproblemscouldbephilosophicalproblems，andtheproblemsofChinesethinkersinthepreQinperiodcouldalsobephilosophicalproblems。〔15〕
　　Inmattersconcerningphilosophy，bothitssubstanceanditsform，andbothitsproblemanditsmethod，areinvolved。Ifonesortofthoughtinvolvesbothphilosophicalsubstanceandphilosophicalform，thenofcourseitisphilosophy。Itinvolvebothphilosophicalsubstanceandphilosophicalform，thenitisveryproblematictosayitisphilosophy。Ifitinvolvesonlyphilosophicalsubstancewithoutphilosophicalform，orifitinvolvesonlyphilosophicalformwithoutphilosophicalsubstance，itisagreatdifficultyforawriterofthehistoryofphilosophy。SCimplieswithinitselfadifficultyofthiskind。〔16〕
　　Butperhapsweshouldproposeanotherpossibility。Thatis，insteadoftakingWesternphilosophyastheuniversalphilosophy，weshouldsimplytakephilosophyasaviewoftheworld，oflifeorofmethod（likeFungYulan〔17〕），engaginginthestudyoftheurgentproblemsoflife，discussingitfromtheultimatepointsofview，（likeHuShi）。〔18〕Makinguseofthesecriteriawecandeterminewhetheratheory（whetherEasternorWestern）conformstophilosophy，orwhetheritissomethingdifferentfromphilosophy。Woulditbecorrecttoproceedinthisway？Ithinkitwouldnot。
　　Firstofall，itisaseriouserrortodesignanymanmadeacademicdisciplinewithoutconsideringhistoricaloccurrences。Anytimewediscussthisorthatacademicdiscipline，
　　wecanonlydosoonthebasisofitsownhistoricaloccurrence，notsimplyonthebasisofourpersonaldecisiontowriteahistoryofthisorthatdiscipline。Thatis，itisonlywhenthisorthatacademicdisciplinehasalreadyoccurredasanhistoricalfactthatwecancompileahistoryofit。Secondly，whilesomeChinesescholars（suchasHuShiandFungYulan）didtry（artificially）thehistoryofCphilosophy，theyneverthelesscontinued，atthesametime，toacceptWesternphilosophyasthetrue，theoneandonly，universalphilosophy。Heretheyfellintoaparadoxandforthefollowingreasons：
　　a。ModernCbeforecomingintocontactwithandstudyingW
　　b。NoChineseintellectuals（）duringthepast2，500philosophy，
　　c。ItwasonlyafterconfrontingWesternphilosophythattheideaofwritingahistoryofChinesephilosophyfirstaroseintheirminds。
　　Infact，thereismuchclearevidencethatbothHuShiandFungYulan，themostprominentinitiatorsofwritingthehistoryofChinesephilosophy，tookWesternphilosophytobetheoneandonlyuniversalphilosophy。Theydefinephilosophyasabranchoflearningwhichconcernsaviewoftheworld，oflifeorofmethod。Thatis，anytheorywhichdiscussestheworld，lifeormethodcanbeseenasphilosophy。Accordingtothisdefinition，tonearlyanyhumanlearning（includingallkindsofreligiousdoctrines）。Thereisnodoubtthatphilosophyalwaysdiscussessomethingaboutworld，lifeormethod，butitiscertainlydoubtfulwhethereveryhumanlearningordoctrinewhichdiscussesthesethingsshouldbecalledphilosophy。Ofcourse，itwouldalsobeabsolutelyproblematictosimplylimittheconcernsofphilosophytoaviewoftheworld，oflifeorofmethod。
　　Tobesure，thestudyofancientChineselearningfromaphilosophicaloranyotherscientificpointofviewmightbequiteplausibleandevensignificant。Butacleardistinctionmustbemadebetween，ontheonehand，takingConfucianismandtheotherancientChineseformsoflearningdirectlyasuniversalphilosophy，and，ontheotherhand，acceptingthattheremaybeaConfucianphilosophy，aTaoistphilosophy，andsoforth。Infact，aConfucianphilosophyoraTaoistphilosophymaywellbehiddenbeneathexistingdoctrines，justwaitingforourdiscoverywheneverwetakethetimetoreinterpretexistingConfucianorTaoistdoctrines。
　　III。ETHICS
　　Foraverylongtimenow，modernChinesescholarshavebeencomfortedbythethoughtthatevenifhardlyanyotheracademicdisciplineinChinawasaswelldevelopedasthoseintheWest，atleastthecaseforethicswasdifferent。Tobemoreprecise，theChinesehavegenerallybelievedthatthemostdevelopeddisciplineinChinawasethics。However，wemeanwhatWmoralphilosophy，thenIethicsisthemostdevelopeddisciplineinCisacorrectjudgment。IthinkthisbecausenodisciplinesuchaswhattheWestmeansbyethicsorethicalthoughthaseveremergedinthehistoryofChinesethought。
　　WhatdoImeanbythis？Ethics，asitaroseinancientGreece，requiredaspecificwayofthinkingwhichiscompletelydifferentfromtheancientChinesestudyofmoralsandhumanrelationships。InthemindsofmanymodernChinesescholars，ancientChineselearning（particularlyConfucianlearning）qualifiesundertherubricofethicsbecauseitisconcernedwiththesameissuesasWesternethics，thatis，bothtakegoodandevilandhumanrelationshipsastheirsubjectmatter，despitethedifferencesintheirapproachtothinking。
　　However，thisviewconfusesethics（ormoralphilosophy）withreligiousdoctrineandneglectsthedifferencebetweenamoralphilosopherandamoralist。Goodandevilandhumanrelationshipsareissuesofconcernnotonlyofethicsandthemoralphilosopher，butalsoofreligionandthemoralist。Concerningthisissue，anAmericanscholar，A。I。Meldenhasremarked：
　　Itwouldbeamistake，however，toidentifythemoralistwiththemoralphilosopher。Unlikethephysician，whosediagnosesareassumedtobebaseduponaknowledgeofthemedicalsciences，themoralistneedhavenocompetenceinthecorrespondingtheoryofmorals。Tobesure，hemaybeaPlato，anEpictetusoraKbuthemayalsobeapoetorprophetwhosemoralcounselisthefruitoflongexperience，
　　wisdom。Rareisthemoralphilosopherwhodoesnotoffermoralcounsel，butnotatallrareisthemoralcounselororthemoralistforwhommoralphilosophyisanunexplored，unknownterritory。
　　What，then，ismoralphilosophy，thetheoryofmoralsorethics，or，tofollowonecurrentusage，ethics？Itis，tobeginwith，afieldofinquiry，thesubjectofatheoreticaldiscipline。Interestinitmayandnormallydoesspringfromourpracticalconcernwithgoodconduct，thedesiretolivewellandreasonably。Nevertheless，thetheoreticalinterestinthesubjectmatterofethics，whatevertheconditionsofitsoriginmaybe，mustnotbeconfusedwiththepracticalinterestofmoralbeings。Tthepracticalinterestisconcernedwithdoing。Letusbearinmindtheimportanceoftheformationofhabitsinthedevelopmentofmoralcharacterandconduct，andthusavoidthemistakeofsupposingthataknowledgeofmoraltheoryissufficientfortheimprovementofourmoralpractice。Further，itwouldbedangerous，inadvanceofasystematicstudyofthesubject，toarguethatmoralphilosophywillimproveoursoundnessinmoraljudgment。〔19〕
　　A。I。Meldenstatesthatifaphysicianfacesalifeanddeathsituationwithapatientunderhiscare，hemaybefacedwithrejectingeitherthemoralprinciplerequiringhimtotellthetruthorthemoralprinciplerequiringhimtosavethelifeofhispatient。Wewouldprobablyagreethatthephysicianoughttotellhispatientanencouraginguntruth。Thelie，whitelie。〔20〕However，
　　Ifweaskthemoralistforareasonforhismoraljudgment，avarietyofanswers，allfamiliartocommonsense，maybeforthcoming。Hemay，asanecclesiastic，referustotheexpressedwillofGodasrevealedinsacredwritingsorasdeliveredbyecclesiasticalauthority。Hemay，asaprofessedhumanitarian，citethewelfareofhumanitywhichtherecommendedactionpromotes。Hemayrefertotheauthorityofconscience，tosimpleandnotfurtherexplicablemoralinsight，totheauthorityortheapprovalofsociety，totheconditionsofevolutionarydevelopmentorprogress，thepromotionofthegood，thegeneralhappiness，thefunctionsandresponsibilitiesofphysicians，thehappinessofthepatient，theselfinterestoftheagent，andsoon。〔21〕
　　Althoughamoralistcanalwaysgiveaseriesofreasonsforhismoraljudgement，itisnotalwaysthecasethathecanprovideoneormoreultimatereasonsforhismoraljudgement。Moreover，thereasonsheprovidesmaybesodifferentfromoneanotherthatwewouldfindithardtosaywhichofthemwasmorereasonableormoreacceptablethantheothers。Itistheattempttounderstandthetrueobjectiveofthemoralistwhichmarksthebeginningofamoralphilosophy。Thisfact，Ithink，demonstratesthatitwouldbeaseriouserrortocategorizethisorthatdoctrine（orsystemoflearning）asethicsormoralphilosophysimplybecauseittakesgoodandevilandhumanrelationshipsforitssubjectmatter。Bothreligioustheoryandmoralphilosophydiscussgood，evilandhumanrelationships。Althoughthereisnodiscrepancybetweenreligionandethicsconcerningthesubjectmatterweareconcernedwith，thisdoesnotsuggestthatwecanconfusethepracticeofreligionwithethicsormoralphilosophy，orthatreligioustheoryisthesameasethics。Adisciplinewhichconcernsitselfwithgoodandevilorhumanrelationshipsmayconstituteethics，butitcanalsobeareligiousdoctrine，orindeedsomethingelseentirely。
　　Itisthusadeparturefromtheessenceofethicsasanacademicdisciplinetorefertoanylearningasethicsmerelybecauseithappenstoberelatedtoissuesofgoodandevilandhumanrelations。ConfusingancientChineselearningwithethicssimplybecauseithasthesamesubjectmatterissuchadeparture。Yes，ofcourse，inancientChina，thestudyofhumanrelationshipsandgoodandevilwasextensivelydevelopedduringaverylongperiodoftime，butthisdoesnotimplythatinthehistoryofChinathereeveremergedanythingwhichcouldbecalledethicsormoralphilosophy。Thefactisthatethics，asanacademicdisciplinewhichwasinitiatedandhasbeendiscussedbyWesternersforover2，000years，neverdidemergeinthehistoryofChinesescholarship。Thereasonisverysimple。NearlyallancientCdoing，theoreticalknowing。Toexpressthismoreexactly，theactionsoftheancientChinesethinkersandtheirwaysofthinkingaremorecharacteristicofthoseofWesternpriestsandpopes，andtheirdoctrinesoflearningaremorelikeWesternreligiousdoctrines。
　　Althoughinethicsonemaysaythatthetheoreticalinterestinknowingmaybebeneficialtothepracticalconcernsofreligion，
　　thefunctionofmoralphilosophyisstillquitelimited。AswascorrectlypointedoutbyAristotle，goodconductoccursinconnectionwithmoralvirtuewhichcan，inmostcases，onlybebroughtaboutbymeansofhabituationanddiscipline。Jmaynotnecessarilybringasoldiertoactbravelyinwar，forthesamereason，arightanalysisofwhatisgoodmaynotnecessarilybringaboutgoodconduct。Theseconcernsrequiretheagenttopayprimaryattentiontocarryingoutconcretepersonalactionsinthemostappropriateselfrestrainedandselfdisciplinedwayinordertoarriveatagoodstateofcharacter。ThisiswhatgenerallyhappensinreligiousactivitiesandisalsowhathappenedinthecaseoftheancientChineseacademia，especiallyasconcernsConfucianlearning。Religiousthinkingoftenappealstointuitive，emotionalandsoulfulunderstanding，ratherthantoaccuracyandstrictnessofreasoningortoasearchfortheultimatetheoreticalbasisforgoodconduct。AnditistheformerthatoftenconstitutesthecaseofancientChineselearning。Forreligion，thediscussionofmoralissuesservesacommonend，thatis，howtodo。ForancientChineselearning，especiallyConfucianlearning，smoralcharacter，howtobeasuperiorman，howtoregulateastate，etc。
　　Generallyspeaking，theinterestofChineseancientlearning，especiallyofConfucianlearningiscompletelypractical，andthecognitiveinterestinwhattheaccuratemeaningofthegoodisandhowtodefinesocialjusticeorthecommongoodcannotbefoundinmostofancientChinesebooksaboutmorality。Inotherwords，thesearetwodifferentkindsofinnerlogic。ThelogicofChineselearningofmoralsischaracterizedbydoing，andthatofWesternethicsbyknowing。IneverbelievetheWesternintellectualtradition，especiallythatofethicalstudies，inthecognitivesense。For，eventhoughmycriterionfordistinguishingtheinnerlogicofChineselearningfromthatofWesternethicsiswhatIhavedescribedasthedichotomyofknowinganddoing，itwouldbefoolishtoclaimthatthethoughtofeveryWesternethicalthinkermustbecharacterizedbythistypeofknowing。Ido，however，claimthatthewayofthinkingcharacterizedbyitsfocusoncognitiveknowingisthemainthrustoftheWesternintellectualtradition，andthisfactisimmeasurablysignificantforthoseofuswhoareattemptingtounderstandthedistinctionbetweenChineselearningandWesternlearning。
　　MyconclusionisthatancientChineselearning，whichisconcernedwithgoodandevilandhumanrelationships，anancientCfortheancientChineselearningofmoralsandthatofWesternethicsfollowtwoalmostcompletelydifferenttracks。WithoutunderstandingtheinnerlogicofWesternethicsanditsdifferencefromthatofancientChinesemorallearning，itseemstomewrongtowriteabookaboutthehistoryofChineseethics。MysuggestionisthatCaiYethicsishighlydevelopedinCandhisbookentitled，AHistoryofChineseEthics，isprobablyaconsequenceofhismisunderstandingofboththeWesternterm，ethics，andofthepurposeofancientChinesescholarship。
　　IV。THATCHINESELEARNINGHASITSOWNSYSTEMATICS
　　AnotherimportantreasonthatcausesmodernChinesescholarstoattemptthereorganizationofChinesetraditionallearningisthattheybelievethatCsystematics。Inparticular，theybelievethatancientChineselearningfailsbecauseitwasneverdividedintothethreeindependentWesterndisciplinesofliterature，historyandphilosophy。AccordingtoCaiYuanpei，ancientCbothmessyandrotten，bothnumerousandjumbledforthreethousandyears。〔22〕
　　Inmyopinion，however，CaiYuanpeihasmadeagraveerror。AccordingtotherecordsoftheancientChinesehistoriographer，ShiMaqiang（145or135B。C。E。），Confuciusalwaysmadeuseofthesixbasicsubjectsoflearningwithhisstudents。Tsixarts，thatis，theShi（History），theShu（Poetry），theLi（Rituals），theYi（Changes），theYue（Music），andtheChunqiu（SpringandAutumnAnnals）withtheircorrespondingclassicaltexts。Inhislateryears，Confuciushadacquiredsome72students，sixarts。ThisdivisionoftheancientChinesedoctrinesintosixsubjectareasdidnot，ofcourse，originatewithConfuciusbuthadalreadycomeintoexistencelongbeforehisday。Hisrolewassimplytoputthesematerialsintoproperorder，makingcertaindeletionsandaddinganumberofnotes。Thus，evenbythetimeofConfucius，ancientChineselearninghadalreadyformeditsownoriginalsystematics，
　　namelyShi，Shu，Li，Yi，YueandChunqiu（aftertheclassicaltextknownasYuewaslaterlost）。
　　ThisdivisionprovedadequateuntiltheperiodoftheWarringStates（475221B。C。E。）whentheriseofvariousnewschoolsofthoughtandtheirsupportersmadetheprevioussystematicsinsufficienttocompriseallexistinglearning。Forthisreason，LiuXing（？23C。E。），ahistoriographerintheHandynasty，dividedalllearningintoadifferentsixparts，isonlyonepart，asfollows：sixarts，thedoctrinesofthevariousschools，literature，militaryarts，theshushu，（technology）（techniquesandskills）。AfterLiuXing，anotherscholarnamedXunXu（？289C。E。）oftheJTheFourDepartmentsofJing（classics），Shi（history），Zi（thedoctrinesofvariouspersons），andJi（thecollectionofspecialtopics）。JandmanyotherimportantConfucianclassics。ThesocalledZiincludedthedoctrinesofthevariousschools，andJiwasaspecialcollectionofbooks，eachofwhichcontainedaspecialtopicorpurpose。〔23〕
　　InthelargestancientChinesebookcollection，SiKuQuanShu（ACompleteCollectionofBooksintheFourDepartmentsofJing，Shi，ZiandJi），compiledduringtheQingdynasty，thesystematicsoftheFourDepartmentswasnormativelyusedandeachofthesedepartmentscontainedseveraldozenadditionalbranchesoflearning。AlthoughthecatalogueofSiKuQuanShuisakindofcatalogueraisonne，evenso，atypicalsystematicsisalsoclearlyapparent，butinthiscaseoneconsistingentirelyofancientChineselearning。Infact，theorganizationofthesetraditionalbookscanonlybeunderstoodashavingbeenestablishedonthebasisofasystematicsoflearning，thatis，ofChineseacademicdisciplines。Forexample，geography，officialpositions，politicalbooks，intheShiDmilitaryarts，agriculture，medicalarts，astronomicalandmathematicaltexts，thearts，theartoffiction，etc。intheZiDepartment。〔24〕IcontendthatitisthusagrievouserrortoclaimthatancientChineselearningwaseverbrokenandnonsystematic，orthatitlacksitsownsoundsystematics。
　　Next，isittruethatancientChineselearningisinnowayscientificoristhisviewfundamentallyproblematic？Inotherwords，shouldwehavethrownoutthesystematicsofTheFourDepartmentsofJing，Shi，Zi，andJiandrearrangedancientChineselearningaccordingtotheWesternsystematicsofliterature，history，philosophy，politics，economics，law，sociology，education，etc。？Asanexample，theShiJing（theClassicBookofPoetry），theShuJing（theClassicBookofHistory），theThreeli（theZhouLi，YiLi，andLiJi），theYiJing（IChing），andtheChunqiuJingarethefivecentralbooksintheJingDepartment。ButjustbecausethesystematicsoftheWesternhumanitiesandsocialscienceswouldplacetheShiJingwithinthedisciplineofliterature，theShuJinginthedisciplineofpolitics，thebooksoftheThreeliintothedisciplinesofpoliticsorethics，theYiJing（IChing）intothedisciplineofphilosophy，andtheChunqiuJingintothedisciplineofhistoryorhistoriography，isthatanyreasonforustodothesame？
　　Moreover，politics，history，geography，agriculture，medicine，inShiKuQuanShuarequitesimilartotheWesternsystematicsofpolitics，history，geography，economics，medicine，astronomyandmathematics，wouldwebejustifiedinconcludingthattheancientChinesesystematicsisnotentirelyalientotheWesternsystematics，andthatperhapstheonlydifferenceisthattheformerisnotasdevelopedandsystematicasthelatter？Unfortunately，suchaviewoftheancientChinesesystematicsissubstantiallyproblematicbecauseitneglects，toalargedegree，sownintrinsicreasonableness，especiallythatofConfucianlearning。
　　First，theideaofC（thatis，plusYue）asacomplete，unifiedandselfsufficientbody，andtheConfuciansstronglyobjecttoanysuggestionthatthisunitybebrokenup。ShiMswordsthatChadtrained72impliesthatCasintercomplementaryandnotinanywayasindependentandunrelatedsubjects。InLunYu，thereareseveralrecordsthatConfuciusaskedhissonordisciplestolearnnotonlyShi（thePoetry）butalsoLi（theRituals），Yue（theMusic），etc。〔25〕FromthetimethattheemperorHanwudi（15687B。C。E。）DoctorsoftheFiveJing，untiltheTangdynastywhentheConfucianwriter，KongYingda（574648C。
　　E。），wrotehisfamouswork，ACommentaryontheFiveJing，andrightuptotheMingandQingdynastieswhentheFourBooksandFiveJingweredesignatedofficialtextbooksforthescreeningofgovernmentofficials，ChineseCsixarts，asaunifiedbodyofknowledge。Fwereprofoundlyinterrelatedandcouldneverbeseparatedfromoneanother。Ibyarbitrarilysubsumingthepartsunderthelabelsofvariousmoderndisciplines，thenthisinterrelationship，alwaysoftheutmostimportanceinthehistoryofancientConfucianlearning，simplybecomesunrecognizable。
　　Secondly，existedindependentlyoftheothers，divisions，whichcameabouthistoricallybutwereneverthelessreasonable，wereformedamongthem。Withrespecttofunction，mayhavebeenindependentofeachother，butwithrespecttoutility，the‘existedasaunifiedbodyatthecoreofConfucianlearning。TTianXofZhuangZJingJofLiJi（Inthefollowingexcerpts，ThePtheBookofPTheWritingsofOtheBookofHTheRtheBookofRitesandCTheMtheBookofMTheCtheYi，TheAorKhunKhiu，）
　　ThePoemsareusefulforguidingourmoods，TheWritingsofOldforguidingouraffairs，TheRitesforguidingourbehavior，TheMusicforleadingustoharmony，TheChangesforteachingusaboutYinandYang，TheAnnalsforguidingusinthematterofdesignationsandduties。〔26〕
　　Confuciussaid，Whenyouenteranystateyoucanknowwhatsubjects（itspeople）havebeentaught。Iftheyshowthemselvesmenwhoaremildandgentle，sincereandgood，theyhavebeentaughtfromtheBookofPoetry，iftheyhaveawidecomprehension（ofthings），andknowwhatisremoteandold，theyhavebeentaughtfromtheBookofHistory。Iftheybelargeheartedandgenerous，blandandhonest，theyhavebeentaughtfromtheBookofMusic。Iftheybepureandstill，refinedandsubtile，theyhavebeentaughtfromtheYi。Iftheybecourteousandmodest，graveandrespectful，theyhavebeentaughtfromtheBookofRitesandCeremonies。Iftheysuitablyadapttheirlanguagetothethingswhichtheyspeak，theyhavebeentaughtformtheKhunKhiu。〔27〕
　　Third，andfinally，inthehistoryofConfucianlearning，alwaysstoodforthefundamentalsoflearningandwereevenseenastheoriginofallhumanlearning。Forexample，inthewellknowncollectionofConfucianclassics，theShishanJing，whichincludesthirteenofthemostimportantConfucianclassics，sixarts，eachfromthepointofviewofoneoftheothers。Forexample，ZhuoZhuang，GongYangZhuang，andGuLiangZhuangwerewrittenforthespecialpurposeofelucidatingChunqiuJing。TheZhouLi，YiLi，andLiJi（socalledThreeLi）arespecialbookswhichelucidatetheLi。TheLunYuasacollectionofthewordsofConfuciusandhisstudents，theMenciusasacollectionofthewordsofMenciusandXiaoJing（thebookofFilialPiety）sixarts。ErYsixarts。ChineseConfuciansbelievethatthevariousschoolsofthoughtduringtheWarringStatesPeriod（475221B。C。E。）sixarts。
　　Eitherway，werenotonlyoriginallyaunifiedbodywhichshouldneverhavebeenseparated，butalsothecentralpartofallChineseancientlearning。LiuXing，ahistoriographeroftheHandynasty，inthefirstpositioninhissystematicsoflearningbecausehebelievedthemtobeofprimaryimportanceconcerninglearning。Moreover，thesystematicsofTheFourDepartmentsofJing，Shi，Zi，andJiimpliesthesamething：first，Jing，meaninginCthecenter，theeternal，isplacedatthecenterofallhumanlearning。Second，intheChinesehistoryofConfucianthoughtoveraperiodofseveralthousandyears，JingDepartment。ItisperhapsforthesamereasonthatMaYifu，amodernChineseConfucian，Chineselearningisessentiallythelearningofsixarts，thesixartscouldbeaguidetoalllearning。〔28〕Hearguedthat，notonlyshouldalldoctrinesintheJingDsixarts，butalsoallotherlearningdoctrinesintheFourDsixarts。〔29〕
　　IbelievethatinthemindsoftheancientChinese，
　　allhumanexperiencesinCsixarts。Forexample，ancientChinesehistoriographycanbeseentoderivefromthespiritoftheChunqiuJing，ancientChinesepoliticalthoughtcanbeseenasadevelopmentfromtheShuJing，whileancientChineseartandliteraturecanbeseenastheconsequenceoftheShiJingandtheYueJing。IfIamcorrectaboutthis，itshouldnowbeclearthatitisabsolutelywrongfortheancientsystematicstohavebeenbrokenup。TheseFourDepartments，atthecenterofallChineselearning，shouldneverhavebeensqueezedintotheWesternsystematics。ThistreatmentofancientChineselearninghasbeenagreatdistractionfromthetruespiritofConfucianlearning。
　　Nowweneedtotakealookatwhy（andwhetheritisreasonablethat）therearenoclearborderlinesamongliterature，history，philosophy，politics，economics，andmanyotherdisciplinesinancientChineselearningwhiletheyaresoclearintheWesternsystematicsoflearning。MyconclusionisthatitisbecauseancientCandtheFourDepartmentsofJing，Shi，Zi，andJi。IthusbelievethatthesystematicsofancientChineselearningisnolessreasonablethanthatoftheWestandshouldneverhavebeenattackedforfailingtoconstructsharpbordersamongitsdisciplines。
　　Whyisthisso？
　　First，assoonaswerecognizethatCknowing，itisclearthatinordertocultivateagoodpersonalitythroughthepracticeofChineselearning，itwillnolongerbenecessarytotreatliterature，history，lawandphilosophicalideasseparatelywithoutanyconsiderationoftheirpossiblepracticalconnectionswithoneanother。ForifanyoneofthesedisciplineshadexistedindependentlywithinancientChineselearning，verylikelyitwouldhavebeenbecauseitwasinsomewayusefulinthepracticeofselfrestraintandinnerimprovement。
　　Second，inordertobecomeagoodandnoblehumanbeing，withanopportunityofbeingappointedtothegovernmentand，likethoseancientConfuciansagesandnoblemen，ofmakingagreatcontributiontothewelfareofthepeopleandthedevelopmentofthecountry，bothmoraldisciplineandthestudyofliastherulesofpersonalbehavior（whichareoftendirectlyrelatedtothesocialpoliticalsystem）arenecessary。Jsbehaviorinacertainsociopoliticalcontext，itwouldbefoolishtothinkapoliticianoragovernmentofficialwholackedmoralresponsibilitywouldbeabletoplayhisrolewell。
　　Third，accordingtotheConfucianidealofhumanlife，swaytowardsuccess。Aswesaw，thesethree，life，are，bycontrast，oftenregardedinWesternphilosophyasthreeindependentconcerns。
　　Finally，whiletheancientChinesesystematicsoflearningandtheWesternsystematicsoflearningarebothequallyreasonable，itwasclearlyagreatmistakeforourpredecessorstocondemntheancientChinesesystematicsoflearningwhentheyhadatthatpointonlyexamineditthroughtheprismofWesterncategoriesandmistakenlyrearrangeditscontentsaccordingtotheseWesternstandards。
　　ENDNOTES
　　〔1〕IammostgratefultoMr。DavidR。Schillerforhavingdonetheheavyeditingworkforthispaper。SinceitisthefirsttimeIhavecompletedsolongandsodefinitiveapaperforpublication，ittookmanymonthsforhimtoreadthewholeofthispaperagainandagaincarefully，andmuchenergywasconsumedinmakingrevisionsofthepaper。HisworkineditingthepaperhasgonefarbeyondpolishingtheEnglishexpressionbutincludesmanyothersides。IamaslodeeplygratefultoProfessorPeiminNi（Ph。D。，AssociateProfessor，DepartmentofPhilosophy，GrandValleyStateUniversity），ProfessorBethJ。Singer（ProfessorEmerita，DepartmentofPhilosophy，BrooklynCollegeofTheCityUniversityofNewYork）forhavingcontributedquitealottothecompletionofthispaper。
　　〔2〕Forexample，asAlasdairMacIntyredidinhisfascinatingbook，AfterVirtue：AStudyinMoralTheory（UniversityofNotreDamePress，SecondEdition，1984）。
　　〔3〕CaiYuanpei。ZhongGuoLunLiXueShi（AHistoryofChineseEthics，Beijing：TheCommercialPress，1987），see：Introduction。
　　〔4〕HuShi。ZhongGuoZheXueShiDaGang（AnOutlineoftheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，Beijing：DongFangPress，1996），see：Introduction。
　　〔5〕FungYulan。ZhongGuoZheXueShi（AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，Beijing：TheChinesePress，1961），Volume1（oftwovolumes），
　　see：Introductionbyauthor。ThisworkhasbeentranslatedintoEnglishbyDerkBodde，cf。FungYulan，Ph。D。，AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy（Peiping：HenriVetch，1937）。Aswewillseelater，somesentencesIChapter1：IofthisworkinCtbeenfoundinthecorrespondingpartoftheEnglishversiontranslatedbyDerkBodde。
　　〔6〕CaiYuanpei。ZhongGuoLunLiXueShi，see：Introduction。
　　〔7〕Ibid。
　　〔8〕HuShi。ZhongGuoZheXueShiDaGang，see：Introduction。
　　〔9〕Ibid。
　　〔10〕FungYulan。ZhongGuoZheXueShi，Volume1，p。1。ThissentenceisnotfoundintheEnglishversionbyDerkBodde。
　　〔11〕Ibid。，p。2。ThissentenceisalsonotfoundinDerkBstranslation。
　　〔12〕FungYulan，Ph。D。AHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，trans。DerkBodde，p。1。
　　〔13〕FungYulan。ZhongGuoZheXueShi，Volume1，p。8。ThissentenceisnotfoundinEnglishversion。
　　〔14〕JinYueling，AReflectiononThisWork，inFungYulan，ZhongGuoZheXueShi，Volume2。ThisReviewbyProf。JindoesnotexistintheEnglishversiontranslatedbyDerkBodde。
　　〔15〕Ibid。
　　〔16〕Ibid。
　　〔17〕Cf。FungYulan。ZhongGuoZheXueShi，Volume1，p。2。
　　〔18〕HuShi。ZhongGuoZheXueShiDaGang，p。1。
　　〔19〕A。I。Melden。，ed。，EthicalTheories，abookofreadings（EnglewoodCliffs，N。J。：PrenticeHall，Inc。，1955），pp。23。
　　〔20〕Ibid。p。4。
　　〔21〕Ibid。
　　〔22〕HuShi，AnOutlineoftheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy，Introduction。
　　〔23〕Cf。ZhangTaiyan。GuoXueJiangYanLu（SpeechesinChineseLearning，Shanghai：EastChinaUniversityPress，1995），pp。4547。Alsocf。MaYifu。MoYuanBuShuoShengRuLei（TheSilenceasLoudasaThunder，Beijing：ChinaBroadcastingandTelevisionPress，1995），p。13。
　　〔24〕SiKuQuanShuZongMu（TheGeneralContentsinACompleteCollectionofBooksinFourDepartmentsofJing，Shi，ZiandJi，Beijing：TheChinesePress，1965），Vol。1（oftwovolumes）。
　　〔25〕Cf。LunYu：8。8，16。13。
　　〔26〕Chapter33：TIofOurWorldinTheSayingsofChuangChou，anewtranslationbyJamesR。Ware（NewYork：TheNewAmericanLibrary，1963），p。224。
　　〔27〕SacredBooksofChina：theTextsofConfucianism，PartIV：TheLiKi，XIXLVI，translatedbyJamesLegge（AttheClarendonPress，1885），Bookxxxiii。KingKieh，p。255。
　　〔28〕MaYifu，MoYuanBuShuoShengRuLei，p。13。
　　〔29〕Ibid。