从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译

　　从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译
　　〔Abstract〕Inrecentyears，moreandmorescholarshavemaderesearchesonmetaphorandanupsurgeofmetaphorhasbeenformedgraduallyinmodernsociety。Thestudiesonmetaphorinforeigncountrieshavedevelopedacompletesystem，whichistypicallyrepresentedbyGeorgeLakeoffandMarkJohnson。AndthestudiesonmetaphorinChinaarealsoinfluencedbythetwo。However，ifsurveyingtheseresearchachievements，wewilleasilyfindthatfewofthemstudythetranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinese。Moreover，mosttraditionaltheoristsbelievethatmetaphorisonlyafigureofspeechandbelongstothecategoryoflinguistics。Butinfact，metaphorisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon，butalsoaculturalandcognitivephenomenon。ThisthesisbreakstheserestrictionsandtrytoresearchintothetranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinesefromtheperspectiveofculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish。Thewholethesisispidedintofiveparts。Thefirstpartisanintroduction。Basedonthenewbeliefthatmetaphorisaculturalandcognitivephenomenon，thispartstatesthesignificanceofstudyingmetaphorfromtheculturalperspective。Thesecondpartfocusesontheanalysisofthecloseinterrelationsbetweenlanguage，cultureandtranslation。Thethirdpartintroducessomemajorfactorsaboutmetaphor，suchasitsdefinitions，characteristicsandclassification。ThefourthpartemphaticallyillustratestheapproachestothetranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChineseintermsofdifferentcorrespondingrelationsbetweenChineseandEnglish。Thelastpartsummarizesthemainpointsofthisthesis。
　　〔KeyWords〕metaphor；translation；culturaldifferences；culturalconnotations；correspondingrelation
　　【摘要】近年来，越来越多的学者对隐喻进行了研究，在现代社会逐渐形成了一股隐喻热。对隐喻的研究在国外已形成较为完整的体系，其中以GeorgeLakeoff和MarkJohnson的研究最具有代表性。国内对隐喻的研究也主要受这两个人的影响。而纵观这些研究成果，我们不难发现，很少有对英语隐喻汉译的研究，而且大多数传统的理论家认为隐喻仅仅是一种修辞格，属于语言学的范畴。但是事实上，隐喻不仅是一种语言现象，也是一种文化现象、认知现象。本论文克服了这些局限，试图从中英文化差异的角度来研究英语隐喻的汉译。整篇论文分为五个部分。第一部分是导入。该部分立足于认为隐喻是一种文化和认知现象这一新观点，阐明了从文化角度对隐喻进行研究的意义。第二部分重点分析了语言、文化与翻译之间的密切关系。第三部分介绍了隐喻的一些要素，如隐喻的定义，特征及分类。第四部分根据不同的英汉对应关系，着重阐述了英语隐喻的汉译方法。最后一部分总结了此论文的一些要点。
　　【关键词】隐喻；翻译；文化差异；文化内涵；对应关系
　　1。Introduction
　　Onseeingthetitleofthisthesis，thereadermayeasilyfindoutthreekeywords：translation，metaphor，andculturaldifferences。Intheviewofmostpeople，metaphorbelongstothecategoryoflanguage，butasweknowthatlanguagehasverycloseconnectionwithtranslationandculture。AsProfessorWangZuoliang，amasteroftranslation，pointedout，translationinvolveslanguageaswellasculture。〔1〕Translationisnotmerelyataskofreplacingonelanguagewithanother，butalsoneedstohaveagoodcommandofthetwodifferentculturesrepresentedbythetwodifferentlanguages。Whenweconcentrateontranslationstudies，weshouldattachgreatimportancetobothlanguageandculture。
　　Overthepasttwodecades，translationstudieshaveassumedasoundmomentumofadvancement，andculture，asanindispensablefactorintranslation，becomesincreasinglyimportant。Throughthoroughanalysis，wecanfindthattherearetwotendenciesintoday’sdevelopmentoftranslationstudies：firstly，translationstudieshavebeenmoreandmoreintegratedwithcommunicationtheories；secondly，thefocusoftranslationhasbeenshiftedfromlinguistictransfertoculturaltransfer。Basedonthesetwotendencies，manyscholarsengagedintranslationstudiesagreewiththeideathattranslationisanactofinterculturalcommunication。
　　Sincetranslationinvolvestwolanguagesandtwocultures，andindifferentculturalbackgrounds，therearedifferentlanguages。BothChineseandEnglisharegreatpeopleswithlonghistoryandrichculturalresources，andnaturallycolorfullanguages。Metaphor，asacategoryoflanguage，isacommonlinguisticphenomenoninbothChineseandEnglish，butmetaphorsinthesetwodifferentculturalbackgroundshavegreatdifferences。
　　Metaphordoesn’texistonthebirthofhuman。Withtheadvancementofhumancivilization，thelinguisticcompetenceofourancestorshadbeengreatlystrengthened。Theygrad从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译uallyacquiredthecapabilitytoexpresstheirideasthroughassociation。Inthisway，metaphoroneofthemostimportantmeansofexpressioninhumanlanguagecameintobeing。Asthefoundationofmankind’sconceptualsystem，metaphoristhecommonfeatureofhumanlanguage。Ifthereisnometaphorinourlanguage，itwillbeveryhardforustoclearlyandvividlyexpressourideas，letalongsmoothandsuccessfulcommunication。〔2〕Traditionaltheoristsviewedmetaphorsimplyasanimportantstylisticdeviceofthepoeticimaginationandrhetoricalflourish，moreoveramatterofwordsratherthanthoughtoraction，butinfact，metaphorispervasiveineverydaylife，notjustinlanguagebutalsointhoughtandaction。〔3〕Ourordinaryconceptualsystem，intermsofwhichweboththinkandact，isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature。JustasI。A。Richardscontends，alllanguageandthoughtaremetaphorical，andmetaphoristhe‘omnipresentprincipleoflanguage’。〔4〕
　　Fromtheimportanceofmetaphor，wecanseethattranslationofmetaphorhasgreatsignificancetotheculturaltranslation。PeterNewmarkhasstatedinApproachestoTranslationthatmetaphorisatthecenterofallproblemsoftranslationtheory，semanticsandlinguistics。〔5〕EspeciallyinEnglish，thereareagreatnumberofmetaphors。IthadbeensaidthatthreequartersoftheEnglishlanguageconsistsofmetaphors。InordertomasterEnglishandsuccessfullycompletethetaskoftranslationfromEnglishintoChinese，successfultranslationofEnglishmetaphorisessential。Therefore，inthispaper，theauthorattemptstodiscusstheproblemoftranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinesefromtheculturalperspectiveindetail。
　　Asfarastranslationtheoryisconcerned，thispaperadoptsEugeneA。Nida’sfunctionaltheory，i。e。FunctionalEquivalence：theresponseofthereceptorstothetranslatedmessagetheresponseoftheoriginalreceptorstothemessagewhenitwasgiveninitsoriginalsetting。〔6〕Fromthispoint，weknowthatfortrulysuccessfultranslation，biculturalismisasimportantasbilingualism，andevenmoreimportantattimes。
　　2。Cultureandtranslation
　　2。1Culture
　　Whatisculture？isaverydifficultquestion，becausecultureissuchacomplexconceptionandanenormoussubjectthatitisextremelyhardforpeopletogiveanexactdefinitiontoit。OneoftheoldestandmostquoteddefinitionsofculturewasformulatedbytheEnglishanthropologistSirEdwardBurnettTylorinPrimitiveCultures（18
　　7hr1）。Hedefinedcultureas‘acomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge，belief，art，law，morals，customsandanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety’。〔7〕
　　Althoughcultureisverycomplicated，wecanroughlyclassifyitintothreecategoriesinscope：（a）materialculturewhichreferstoalltheproductsofmanufacture；（b）institutedculturewhichreferstosocialsystem，religioussystem，ritualsystem，educatedsystemandkinshipsystemetc；（c）mentalculturewhichreferstopeople’smentalitiesandbehaviors，theirbeliefs，perceptions，conceptsofvalue，thoughtpatternsetc，
　　Intheviewofmostanthropologists，culturepossessesthefollowingfeatures：（a）cultureissociallyacquiredinsteadofbiologicallytransmitted；（b）cultureissharedamongthemembersofacommunityinsteadofbeinguniquetoaninpidual；（c）cultureissymbolic。Languageisthemosttypicalsymbolicsystemwithinculture；（d）cultureisintegrated。Eachaspectofcultureistiedinwiththeotheraspects。〔8〕
　　Sincelanguagesymbolizesandreflectsculture，languagecommunicationisactuallyakindofculturalcommunicationandthecommunicationbetweendifferentlanguagesisindeedcommunicationbetweendifferentcultures。Fromthisperspective，thetranslationoflanguageisessentiallythetranslationofculture，andtranslationstudiesshouldbeconductedinthecontextofculture。Inthenextsection，theauthorisgoingtodiscusstheinterrelationsbetweenlanguage，cultureandtranslation。
　　2。2Language，cultureandtranslation
　　Nobodywillsuspectthecloseinterrelationsbetweenlanguageandculture。Alanguagemaybeasmallbutindispensablepartofaculture。Therelationbetweenlanguageandcultureismutuallycauseandeffect。Theypenetrateintoeachotherandcannotexistwithouteachother。Cultureembracesandinfluenceslanguage。Intheprocessofcommunication，themeaningoflanguageisusuallydeterminedbyitsculturalcontext。Ontheotherside，languageistheimportantconstituentofcultureanditisalsoanessentialtoolforthereservation，communicationandreflectionofculture。〔9〕Inasense，languagecarriesculture，mirrorsculture，spreadsculture从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译andhelpsdevelopculture。Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatlanguageisthelifebloodofcultureandcultureisthetrackalongwhichlanguageformsanddevelops。
　　Justbecauseofthecloserelationbetweenlanguageandculture，wehavetopayattentiontotheculturalcontextwhenweresearchintolanguage。Accordingtolinguistics，theoriginofhumanlanguageisalwaysconnectedwiththeoriginofhumanandhumansociety。Therefore，ifweneedtounderstandcertainlanguageandthelawsofitsdevelopment，wemustcloselyrelateittothehistoryofsocialdevelopmentofthislanguageandtothepeopleusingitanditshistory。Theexistenceofculturecannotdepartwithitscertainculturalcontext。〔10〕
　　Asfortherelationbetweencultureandtranslation，theauthorhasmentionedabove。Translationis，inessence，anactofinterculturalcommunication，andthetranslationoflanguageisthetranslationofculture。Nidaholdsthatbothlanguageandculturearesymbolicsystems，andtranslationistheinteractionbetweenthesetwosystems。Thus，intranslationweshouldnotonlyfocusontheliteralmeaningofwordsorsentences，butalsopayspecialattentiontotheirculturalconnotationsincertainculturalcontext。Therefore，translationstudiesatleastcontaintwotypes：innarrowsenseitisliteraltranslation，whichaimsatturningthecontentinonelanguageintoanother；inbroadsenseitisculturaltranslation，whichexploresinturningtheculturalconnotationinonelanguageintoanotherculturalform。〔11〕
　　Sofarasnow，theauthorhasillustratedtheintimateinterrelationsbetweenlanguage，cultureandtranslation。Andamongtherelationsbetweeninpidualconstituentoflinguisticsystemandsocialdevelopment，themostdirectoneislexicon。Itisbecausethatlexiconismostsensitivetothedevelopmentofsociety。Andmetaphor，astheminorsystemoflexicon，ismostdeeplyaffectedbysocialculture。AsdiscussedinIntroduction，metaphoristhecommonfeatureofhumanlanguageandthefoundationofmankind’sconceptualsystem。Sowhenwedotranslationstudies，metaphorisnecessarilyenlistedinourconsideration。Althoughmetaphordiffersgreatly，theacceptanceofmetaphorfromanaliencultureispossible，becausehumanbeingsallliveintheEarth，andtheysharemoreorlesssimilarlivingenvironmentandsimilarfeelingsandsentiments。However，theacceptanceofmetaphorisusuallyincomplete，becauseitislimitedbythepersityofculture。Asweknow，differentnationshavedifferentculture，andindifferentculturalcontext，metaphorissurelydifferent。What’smorethinkingitselfismetaphoricalandmetaphoricalconceptsconstitutepeople’svaluesandthoughtpatterns。Therefore，howtodealwithmetaphorintranslationisapragmaticproblemintranslationstudies。Inthefollowingchapter，theauthorisgoingtofirstintroducemetaphorthoroughly。
　　3。Metaphor
　　3。1Definitionofmetaphor
　　Theword‘metaphor’derivesfromtheGreekword‘metaphora’，whichmeans‘transference，carryingover’。ItisaverycommonfigureofspeechinEnglish。〔12〕Metaphor，whosebasicconstituentsaretenor，vehicleandground，useswordstoindicatesomethingdifferentfromtheirliteralmeaningonethingisdescribedintermsofanothersoastosuggestalikenessoranalogybetweenthem。
　　Onthedefinitionofmetaphor，differentscholarsandacademicworksgivetheirdifferentopinions。Nexttheauthorisgoingtolistsomeofthem：
　　（a）Afigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparison，inwhichawordorphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedofonethingisappliedtoanother。（Webster’sNewWorldDictionary）〔13〕
　　（b）Afigureofspeechinwhichonethingisdescribedintermsofanother。Thebasicfigureinpoetry。Acomparisonisusuallyimplicit；whereasinsimileitisexplicit。（ADictionaryofLiteralTerms）〔14〕
　　（c）Theuseofonereferencetoagroupofthingsthatarerelatedinaparticularwayinordertodiscoverasimilarrelationinanothergroup。（I。A。Richards，1936：8990，ThePhilosophyofRhetoric）〔15〕
　　（d）Thefigureofspeechinwhichanameordescriptivetermistransferredtosomeobjectdifferentfrom，butanalogousto，thattowhichitisproperlyapplicable；aninstanceofthis，ametaphoricalexpression。（OxfordEnglishDictionary，SecondEdition，200
　　2）
　　（e）ATextbookofTranslation（PeterNewmark，1988：10
　　4）definesmetaphorasfollows：Bymetaphor，Imeananyfigurativeexpression：thetransferredsenseofaphysicalword；thepersonificationofanabstraction；theapplicationofawordorcollocationtowhatitdoesnotliterallydenote，i。e。，todescribeonethingintermsofanother。Allp从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译olysemouswords（a‘heavy’heart）andmostEnglishphrasalverbsarepotentiallymetaphorical。Metaphorsmaybe‘single’viz。onewordor‘extended’（acollocation，anidiom，asentence，aproverb，anallegory，acompleteimaginativetext）〔16〕
　　（f）Afigureofspeechinwhichawordorphrasethatordinarilydesignatesonethingisusedtodesignateanother，thusmakinganimplicitcomparison，asinaseaoftroublesorAlltheworld’sastage（Shakespeare）（TheAmericanHeritageoftheEnglishLanguage，FourthEdition，2000）〔17〕
　　（g）Afigureofspeechinwhichatermorphraseisappliedtosomethingtowhichitisnotliterallyapplicableinordertosuggestaresemblance，asinAmightyfortressinourGod。（RandomHouseCompactUnabridgedDictionary，SpecialSecondEdition，19
　　9hr6）〔18〕
　　Eachoftheabovequoteddefinitionspointsoutmoreorlesstheessenceofmetaphor。Thecommonfeatureofthesedefinitionsisthatallofthemthinkthatmetaphorisafigureofspeech，containinganimplicitcomparison。Amongthesevendefinitionsofmetaphor，thefirstisveryconcise；thesecondmakesacontrastbetweensimileandmetaphortopointoutthefundamentaldifferencebetweenthesetworhetoricaldevices；thethirdpointsoutthatinmetaphor，thetenorandthevehiclearerelatedthroughtheirsimilarityinaparticularway；thefourthisabstractforitprovidesnoconcreteexamplestohelpthereaderbetterunderstandthenotionitintendstoconvey；thefifthseemstobethemostcomprehensiveandthemostspecificoftheabovequoteddefinitionsasitincludesseveralwaysofmanifestationswhichallbelongtometaphor；thesixthissomewhatclearwithtwoexamplesprovided；thelastoneisquitesimilarwiththefirstone。
　　ButthisthesisismainlybasedontheviewofGeorgeLakeoffandMarkJohnson。TheyclaiminMetaphorsWeLiveby，‘metaphorispervasiveineverydaylife，notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction。’Theypointout，‘Ourordinaryconceptualsystem，intermsofwhichweboththinkandact，isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature。’〔19〕ThispointofviewisveryconsistentwithI。A。Richards’metaphorisomnipresentprincipleoflanguagementionedinIntroduction。
　　3。2Characteristicsofmetaphor
　　Fromthesevendefinitionsonmetaphoraboveandaccordingtoourknowledgeofmetaphor，wemayconcludethatmetaphorpossessesatleastthefollowingfourcharacteristics：
　　（a）Unlikesimile，metaphordoesn’tcontainsuchlinkingwordsasasandlike，sothecomparisonisimplicitratherthanexplicit。
　　（b）Inametaphor，thetenoriscomparedtothevehiclebecausetheyshareanabstractquality，whichfunctionsasatieconnectingthetwotogether。Inotherwords，thetenorandthevehiclepossessasimilarabstractfeatureorquality，whichservesasthebasisoftheircomparison。
　　（c）Thetenorandvehiclearebynaturedifferentfromeachother，thoughtheypossesssomethingabstractincommononwhichtheircomparisonisbased。
　　（d）Thevehicleinametaphorcreatesaspecificimage，whichisusuallyvividandimpressive。Bycomparingthetenortothevehicle，wenotonlygetaconcreteimageofthetenorbutalsomakeitstypicalqualityorfeaturestandout。
　　Tosumup，theauthorwouldratherbelievethatmetaphorisnotjustamatteroflanguage，afigureofspeech，whichimpliesaresemblancebetweenoneobjectandanother，butacognitivemodefromtheperspectiveofcognitivelinguistics，whichhelpspeopleunderstandtheworld。
　　Sofarasnow，thisthesishasthoroughlyillustratedsomemajorfactorsofmetaphor。Inthenextpart，theauthorwillpayspecialattentiontodiscussthetranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishtoChinesefromtheperspectiveofculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish。
　　4。TranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinesefromtheperspectiveofculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish
　　4。1Culturaltranslationofmetaphor
　　Aswehavediscussedabove，metaphorisnotonlyamatterofwords，butalsoakindofcognitivemode。Thus，itisnotenoughtoexplorethetranslatabilityofmetaphoronlyfromtheperspectiveoflinguistics，butalsofromotherperspectives。Cultureisthemostimportantoneoftheminthatinmetaphors，thesemanticingredientsrestrictedbycontextcanstimulatereaderstoassociateothers，especiallycertainmajordefinitionalones，whichcanshapeanimageinreaders’mind，thenmaketheimpartedinformationmoreclearandvivid。〔20〕Whileimageandculturearecloselylinked。Therefore，itisnecessaryforustodiscussthetranslatabilityofmetaphorfromthecultural从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译perspective。
　　Whetherametaphoristranslatable（i。e。whetherliteraltranslationcouldcreateidenticaldimensions），howdifficultitistotranslate，howitcanbetranslatedandwhetheritshouldbetranslatedatallcannotbedecidedbyasetofabstractrules，butmustdependonthestructureandfunctionoftheparticularmetaphorwithinthetextconcerned。Thetranslatabilityofanygivensourcelanguagemetaphordependsontwofactors：oneisparticularculturalexperiencesandsemanticassociationexploitedbyit；theotheristheextenttowhichthesecan，orcannot，bereproducednonanomalouslyintargetlanguage，dependingonthedegreeofoverlapineachparticularcase。Let’slookatanexample：
　　（1）Don’tbescared，chickens！camehervoicewithteasinggaiety。
　　别害怕，你们这些胆小如鼠的东西！只听得她用戏谑的口气说道。
　　Inthisexample，chickensshouldnotbeliterallytranslatedinto小鸡inChinese，becauseinwesternculture，chickenisoftenusedtorefertoacowardlyandfearfulperson。Thus，胆小如鼠isabettertranslation。
　　4。1。1ManagementofculturalfactorsintranslatingEnglishmetaphors
　　EnglishmetaphorscontainabundantandvividculturalconnotationofthenationandstronglyreflecttheculturalcharacteristicsofthenationwithEnglishasitsnativelanguage。ThekeyofsuccessfultranslationofEnglishmetaphorsliesintheextenttowhichthetranslatorunderstandstheculturalcontextandthetranslationoftheculturalfeatures。Thus，thetranslatorshouldtrytomasterthesourceandculturalcontextofEnglishmetaphorsasmuchaspossible，whichisverynecessarytoexactlyunderstandtheirconnotationsandtheculturalcharacteristicstheyreflect。Thenthetranslatorcanusepropermethodstotranslatetheseconnotationsandcharacteristicsinordertoachievethemostfaithfulandperfecttranslation。
　　Astotranslationstandardandapproach，inforeigncountries，thereareNida’sformalcorrespondenceandfunctionalequivalence，andC。F。Newmark’ssemantictranslationandcommunicationaltranslation；inChina，thereexistsdirecttranslationandindirecttranslation。Althoughtheyaredifferentstandards，allofthemdonotconflictwitheachotherbutcomplementwitheachother。Therefore，therearemanyapproachestotranslatingmetaphors。Whileintheprocessoftranslatingmetaphors，whichapproachisthebestchoice？Itwilldependonthenatureandpositionofmetaphorsintext，ontherelationbetweenmetaphorandcontextandonthetypeofthetextitself。
　　Aboveall，duringtheprocessoftranslationofmetaphors，thetranslatorshouldtrytoflexiblykeeptheculturalfeatureswhiletranslatingmeaning。Asaresultofculturalsimilaritiesanddifferences，thetargetlanguageandthesourcelanguagehavedifferentcorrespondingrelations：sometimesfullcorresponding，sometimessemicorresponding，andsometimesnoncorresponding。Suchaphenomenonwillfurtheraffecttheaccuracyoftranslation。Infact，anytranslationmaybringaboutthelossofmeaningandorimage。Therefore，weshouldadoptdifferentcomplementalmethodsinordertoachievewhatNidacalledfunctionalequivalence。〔21〕BothNidaandNewmarkclassifylinguisticcultureintofivecategories：（a）ecology（b）materialculture（c）socialculture（d）religiousculture（e）linguisticculture。〔22〕Itclearlytellsusthat：culturalinformationcarriedbyallkindsoflanguagesiscertaintobedifferent，becausetheecology，material，socialandreligiousenvironmentwhichdifferentnationsownareimpossibletobeidentical。Theculturaldifferencesdirectlyinfluencethethinkingmodeandvalueorientationofhumanbeing，thusbecomethemainreasonforthedifferencesofmetaphoricalconceptsofthetwonations。Throughresearchesonmetaphors，wecanfindtheculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish。
　　Firstly，metaphorsreflectgeologicalandnaturalconditionsofanation。Differentnationshavedifferentgeologicalenvironmentandnationalcircumstances，andthisdifferenceoftenfindsexpressioninmetaphors。Forexample
　　（2），whendescribingtheemergenceofalargeamountofnewobjects，Chinesealwayssay雨后春笋般地，whileinEnglishpeopleusuallysaygrowlikemushrooms（像蘑菇一般）。Fromthisexample，wecanfindthatforthesamephenomenon，ChineseandEnglishusedifferentimagestodescribe。Thereasonjustliesinthedifferentenvironmentofthetwonations：Chinaaboundswithbambooshoots，whiletheEnglishspeakingcountrieswithmushrooms。Besidesclimate，terrainandspeciesofanimalsandplants，distributionofmineraldepositsisanimportantfactorforustoconsiderintermsofgeologicalconditions。Theancientpoem问君能有几多愁，恰似一江春水向东流reflectsChina’sterrainishighinthewestandlowintheeast；andtheEnglishidiomcarrycoalstoNewcastle（近乎做徒劳无功的事）arisesfromthebackgroundthatNewcastleisanindustrialcityinEngland’snortheast，famousforcoalexportation。〔24〕
　　Secondly，metaphorsreflecttraditionalcultureandvalues。Peopleindifferentnationshavedifferentwaysoflife，thinking，cultureandmentalities。Asshownabove，metaphorandculturehavecloserelations。Throughmetaphor，peoplecanwellunderstandtheobjectiveworld。Andmetaphor，tosomeextent，reflectsanddeterminestheshapingofanation’scultureandvalues。Itisbecausethatwhenpeoplemakemetaphorsoncertainimages，theirviewsofcultureandvaluesmustbemanifestedinthesemetaphorsconsciouslyorunconsciously。Forexample，inChineseculturethepine，thebambooandtheplumarecalledthreegentlemeninwinter。Becausethethreeofthemcansurvivetheextremelycoldwinterandremainvital。ForChinese，theyrepresentanoblespirit。WhileinEnglishculture，theyarejustthreecommonplantsandcannotgivepeopleanyassociation。
　　PeopleinChineseandEnglishculturehavedifferentunderstandingofcolor。Forexample
　　（3），redisthekindofcolorChineseadmireandhasthemeaningofluck，success，faithfulnessandwealth，etc。Thisphenomenoncanbeexplainedfromtheangleofculture。InChineseculture，Chinesespecialadmirationforredoriginatesfrompeople’sworshipanddesireforthesuninancienttimes。Andourforebears’attachmentfortheredsunshineisnative。Thereforethepositivemeaningrepresentedbyrednaturallycomesintobeing。Forexample，inancienttimes，thehouse，theclothes，andthecartstheinfluentialofficialslivedin，woreandsatinwererespectivelycalled朱门，朱衣，朱轩。Inmoderntimes，peopleuse分红torefertotheprofitsdistributedtothebusinesscooperators。Onthecontrary，inEnglishculture，redisanegativeword。Becauseredisalsothecolorofblood，andinthemindofEnglish，bloodistheliquidoflife，onceonebleeds，thefloweroflifewillsoonwither。Therefore，theyoftenassociateredwithviolenceanddanger。Thentherearetheredrulesoftoothandclaw，redrevenge，aredbattle，redhandetc。〔25〕AlloftheseexpressionsshowthatredisakindofunluckycolorinEnglishculture。
　　Besides，becauseoftraditionalculturaldifferences，metaphorsonloveinChineseandEnglishareentirelydifferent。Forexample
　　（4），inbothChineseandEnglish，thereisametaphoricalconceptLoveisajourney（爱情是旅程）。ThenEnglishsaywecannotturnbacknow；inChinese，thereisasimilarexpression：我们再也回不去了《十八春》（张爱玲）。However，theconnotationsofthesetwoexpressionsarecompletelyopposite。Intheformer，loveiscomparedtojourneymetaphorically，whichmeansthatloversmustovercomethedifficultiesinthelovejourneytogether，otherwisetheycannotmaintaintheirlove。Whattheexpressionemphasizesisthedeterminationthatloversstriveshoulderbyshoulder。Whileinthelatter，theexpressionimpliesthespeaker’sconfusion。Thoughtheloversregretfortheirdepartinglove，theycannotgobacklikebeforeanymore。〔26〕
　　Thirdly，somemetaphorshavehistoricalandculturalbackgrounds。InbothChineseandEnglish，therearemanyexpressionsimplyingrichhistoricalandculturalbackgroundsandproducevariousassociations。Forexample
　　（5），inChinese，wesay说曹操，曹操就到，暗渡陈仓，东施效颦，卧薪尝胆，负荆请罪，四面楚歌。Eachoftheseallusionsandidiomscontainsagreatdealofhistoricalandculturalinformation。WhileEnglishsaymeetone’sWaterloo（惨遭失败），That’sallGreektome（一窍不通）。Thestoryofmeetone’sWaterloocanbetrackedbacktoJune8，1815，whenthealliedforcesofBritainandGermanycrus从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译hedNapolean’stroopsinWaterloo，southofBelgium。Later，thisexpressioncanbeusedtodescribeanysituationwhenoneencountersatotaldefeat。
　　EnglishhistoricalallusionsmostlyoriginatedfromGreekmyth。Forexample
　　（6），aslongaswesay银河，天河，wewillassociatethefolkstoryaboutthattheAltairandtheVegameetonoverthisgutter。WhileEnglishwillcallthemilkyway，whichcomesfromtheGreekmyth。ItreferstoboththeroadformedbythedrippingmilkwhenQueenHerafedHercules，awarriorwithgreatstrength，andamilkyroadfromthehumanworldintothepalaceintheuniverse。〔27〕
　　Fourthly，metaphorsgiveexpressiontopeople’swayofliving。ResearchesontheconnotativemeaningsofanimalsinChineseandEnglishculturesalsorevealtheimpactofmetaphoronpeople’sliving。Forexample
　　（7），inChinese，weoftenencountersuchexpressionslike像老黄牛一样干活，气壮如牛，鞭打快牛etc。Whileifexpressingthesamemeaning，Englishwillsayworklikeahorse，asstrongasahorse，flogawillinghorse。WhyChineseandEnglishusetwodifferentimages？ItisbecausethatusuallyChineseusecattletoplow，whileEnglishhorses。CattleandhorsesrespectivelybecomethegoodhelperofChineseandEnglishinfarming，sothereareusagesaboutthemabove。〔28〕AndsincehorsesinancientChinaaremainlyusedforridingandwar，theassociativemeaningofhorseinChineseisthatitcanberiddenanditrunsfast，whichgivesrisetotheexpressionlike马上，马到成功and一马当先。
　　Fifthly，metaphorsreflectpeople’sreligiousbeliefs。Religionisanimportantsourceofmetaphoricalexpression。AsChristianityisthemainspiritualsupportofwesternersandiscriticalfortheformationofEnglishculture，ithaspenetratedeveryaspectofEnglishsociallife，includingtheEnglishlanguage。AnditismanifestedmostobviouslyinEnglishmetaphors。Infact，mostEnglishmetaphorscomefromreligiousbeliefsandfairystories。ManycharactersandeventsoftheBiblemakeupalargepartofEnglishwordswithuniqueconnotations，andmanyimagesofthiskindarewidelyusedinmetaphors。〔29〕
　　e。g。
　　（8）Thetwopartysystemistheappleofthecapitalists’eye，sofarasmaintainingtheirpoliticalcontroloftheworkersisconcerned。
　　就资产阶级维护对于工人的政治控制而言，两党制是资本家的宝贝。
　　Inthissentence，themetaphortheappleoftheeye（掌上明珠）comesfromTheOldTestamentoftheBible，Hekepthimastheappleofhiseye。（保护他如同保护眼中的瞳人）。Inancienttimes，peoplenoticedthatpupilineyeswasjustlikeanapple，sotheycalledpupilasappleoftheeye。Aspupilisaverypreciouspartinhumanbody，appleoftheeyeisalsousedtorefertothepersonorthingmostliked。
　　Besides，expressions，suchasNoah’sArk，olivebranch，Paradise，Forbiddenfruit，Adam’sappleandaJuda，alsohaverichmetaphoricalmeanings。
　　InsteadofChristianity，mostofChinesepeoplebelieveinConfucianismandTaoism。LikethoseinEnglish，expressionsrelatedtoChinesereligiousbeliefsfindtheirwaytometaphorssuchas临时抱佛脚，道高一尺，魔高一丈，放下屠刀，立地成佛，做一天和尚，撞一天钟，不看僧面看佛面and借花献佛。Afterrepeateduse，themetaphoricalmeaningsoftheseexpressionshavealreadyoversteppedtheirliteralmeaningasreligiouswords。
　　4。2CorrespondingrelationsandapproachestothetranslationofEnglishmetaphors
　　Asweknow，everynationhasitsownuniquesocialandculturalbackgrounds。Thereexistsgreatculturaldifferencesbetweennations，especiallyinmoderntimes，thankstothedevelopmentofadvancedandconvenientmeansofcommunicationandtransportation，theinterculturalcommunicationbecomesmoreandmorefrequent。Meanwhile，becausepeopleindifferentnationsmusthavesomesimilarexperiencetosomeextent，theculturaloverlapcannotbeavoidedunderthiscondition。〔30〕
　　Asshownabove，language，especiallymetaphorhascloserelationwithculture。MetaphorwidelyexistsinbothChineseandEnglish，andtypicallyrepresentstherichanduniquecultureofeachnation，whilethefactthatdifferentnationsoftenhavedifferentwaysofmakingmetaphorsposesproblemsfortranslators。Inthelastsection，alsothemostimportantsection，basedonalargenumberofconvincingexamplesandfromtheangleofculturalanalysis，theauthorisgoingtodiscussthecorrespondingrelationsbetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphors，andofferseveralapproachestothetranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinese。
　　（i）Fullcorrespondingrelation
　　Socalledfullcorrespondingis，infact，suchakindofrelationthattheobjectandtheimageofametaphorarefully从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译correspondinginChineseandEnglish。ThereasonwhythereisfullcorrespondingrelationinChineseandEnglishistheculturaloverlapwehavementionedabove。Althoughdifferentcountrieshavedifferentcultures，traditionsandwaysofthinking，westillhavealotincommoninusingmetaphor，becausewehumanbeingsliveinthesamematerialworld。Asmammals，humanbeings’basiclivingnecessitiesandactivities，regardlessoftheirraces，arefundamentallythesame，ortendtobethesame。Peoplefromdifferentculturesalsosharemuchidenticalunderstandingofthenature。Ourlivingenvironment，suchasecologicalenvironmentandclimatechange，aswellasourownbodiesprovideuswiththepossibilitytohavesameunderstandingoftheoutsideworldandourselves。Atthesametime，thecommoncognitiveexperienceenablespeopletohavebasicallysamementalitytoacceptmetaphorsthatarefreshtothem。〔31〕
　　Undertheconditionoffullcorrespondingrelation，therearetwoapproachestothetranslationofthiskindofmetaphor：
　　（a）Literaltranslationreproducingthesameimageinthetargetlanguageprovidedthattheimagehascomparablefrequencyandcurrencyintheappropriateregister。That’stosay，throughliteraltranslation，theimageinsourcelanguageisentirelyretainedandtheinformationandeffectbroughtaboutbytheimagealsocanbeachievedintargetlanguage。Theadvantageofliteraltranslationistoenablethereadersofthetargetlanguagetobeexposedtoandgraduallyaccepttheculturalfeatureofthesourcelanguage。〔32〕Forthetranslationofonewordmetaphors，thisapproachismostuseful。
　　e。g。
　　（9）arayofhope一线希望
　　（10）Chainreaction连锁反应
　　（1
　　1）thewhiteterror白色恐怖
　　（1
　　2）coldwinds冷言冷语
　　Whileforthecomplexmetaphorswithahighdegreeofculturaloverlap，thisapproachisalsofeasible。
　　e。g。
　　（1
　　3）togothroughfireandwater赴汤蹈火
　　（1
　　4）toheadawolfintothehouse引狼入室
　　（1
　　5）togivesomebodygreenlight给某人开绿灯
　　Alsosomesentenceswithmetaphorsaretranslatedbythisapproach。
　　e。g。
　　（1
　　6）Lifeisajourney。人生是一种旅途。
　　（1
　　7）Alltheworld’sastage。（Shakespeare）整个世界是个舞台。
　　（1
　　8）Thetreeoflibertymustberefreshedfromtimetotimewiththebloodofpatriotsandtyrants。Itisitsnaturalmanure。
　　自由之树须常以爱国志士和暴君的血来浇灌，这些鲜血是自由之树的天然肥料
　　（b）Translationofmetaphorbysimile，retainingtheimage。Asamatteroffact，metaphoriscondensedsimile。Aristotlebelievedthatsimilederivesfrommetaphorandpointedoutthatsimileisakindofmetaphor。Theyareidenticalinessence。Thisapproachcanbeusedwhentargetlanguageisnotemotiveincharacter。Underthiscondition，thiswaycanmodifytheshockofametaphor。
　　e。g。
　　（1
　　9）athunderofapplause雷鸣般的掌声
　　（20）alionathome，amouseabroad在家如狮，在外如鼠
　　（2
　　1）Loveandcoughcannotbehid。爱情像咳嗽一样是掩盖不了的。
　　（2
　　2）Agoodsurgeonmusthaveaneagle’seye，alion’sheartandalady’shand。〔33〕
　　好的外科医生必须有像鹰般的视力，狮子般的胆量和仕女般的巧手。
　　Thecontentsaboveareabouttheapproachtothetranslationofmetaphorundertheconditionoffullcorrespondingrelation。However，culturaloverlapdoesn’toftenoccur。Inmostcases，duetothedifferencesinhistory，geologicalconditions，waysoflife，traditionsandhabits，EnglishandChinesepeopledon’talwayshaveidenticalthinking，understanding，viewsandopinionsonthesameobject。Therefore，notmanyfullcorrespondingrelationscanbefound，andmoremetaphorsinChineseandEnglishhavesemicorrespondingandnoncorrespondingrelations。
　　（ii）Semicorrespondingrelation〔39〕
　　InbothChineseandEnglish，weoftencomeacrossthatdifferentwordsareusedforthesamemetaphoricalmeaningandmanymetaphorshavethesamemetaphoricalmeaningbutdifferentliteralmeaning（imagesaredifferent）。Metaphorsofthiskindonlypartlyconveythecorrespondingculturalfeaturesoftheirequivalents，sotherelationsofthesemetaphoricalequivalentsarecalledsemicorrespondingrelations。〔34〕Thereasonwhysemicorrespondingrelationshappenisbecausepeoplefromdifferentcultureshavedifferentassociationsofthesameordifferentimages。Inviewofthis，therearetwoapproachestotranslationofmetaphorofthiskind。
　　（a）Substitutionoftheimageinsourcelanguagewithastandardtargetlanguageimage。〔35〕Whentheimageinsourcelanguagecannotconveytherealmeaningintargetlanguage，evenclasheswithtargetlanguagecultur从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译e，thisapproachisadaptable。Atthistime，weshouldtrytounderstandboththesuperficialstructureandthedeepconnotationofthemetaphorinsourcelanguageatfirst，andthenfullydisplaythembyaproperimageintargetlanguagethathassimilarmetaphoricalmeaning。
　　e。g。
　　（2
　　3）birdsofafeather一丘之貉
　　（2
　　4）lameduck落选的议员
　　（2
　　5）swansong最后的言行；最后的作品
　　（2
　　6）Betterbetheheadofadogthanthetailofalion。宁为鸡头，勿为牛后
　　（2
　　7）Everylifehasitsrosesandthorns。人生有苦有乐
　　（2
　　8）Moneymakesthemarego。有钱能使鬼推磨
　　（b）Reproducingmetaphorwithsimile（ormetaphor）plussenseornote。〔36〕Asaresultofsocialandculturalfactors，sometimesintranslationofmetaphorfromEnglishintoChinese，althoughtheimageinsourcelanguageisretained，itisstillhardforChinesereaderstounderstandbecausetheimageisofobviousculturalfeaturesofEnglishnationorimpliescertainhistoricaleventsorcharacterallusions。Meanwhile，intranslatingsomeEnglishmetaphors，whoseconnotationsmaybelostifthroughdirecttranslation，wecannotfindequivalentsinChinese。Formetaphorsofthistype，especiallyforanumberofnamesofpeopleandplaceswithculturalconnotations，weusuallyadoptthisapproachtotranslation。
　　e。g。
　　（2
　　9）Theplan，whichseemssopromising，turnedouttobeaPandora’sbox。
　　看起来如此有希望的计划，结果却是一个带来不幸的潘多拉盒子。
　　（30）Thedieiscast。骰子一出，大局已定。
　　（31）Alittlepotissoonhot。壶小易热，量小易怒。
　　（iii）Noncorrespondingrelation
　　AsChineseandEnglishhavetheirownuniqueculture，manymetaphoricalconceptsonlyexistineitherChineseorEnglish。Inaddition，therearemetaphorsthatmayhavesimilarliteralmeanings，buttheirmetaphoricalmeaningsaretotallydifferent。〔37〕Metaphorsofthiskindhavenoncorrespondingrelationsandweshouldadoptthefollowingtwoapproachestothetranslationofthesemetaphors：
　　（a）Conversionofmetaphortosense。Forcertainmetaphors，thedegreeofcorrespondencebetweensourcelanguageandtargetlanguageisverylow。Underthiscondition，weshouldtakeconnotationasthefirstandimageasthesecond。That’stosay，intranslationofmetaphors，sometimeswehavetochangetheimageinsourcelanguageinordertocorrectlyexpresstheconnotations。Underthiscondition，theapproachofconversionofmetaphortosensecanbeapplied。
　　e。g。
　　（3
　　2）theheelofAchilles致命的弱点
　　（3
　　3）Loveme，lovemydog。爱屋及乌
　　（3
　　4）Homersometimesnods。智者千虑，必有一失
　　（3
　　5）Isupportedhimfromtheeggtotheapplesthoughheoncetoldmeoff。
　　虽然他曾责备过我，但是我自始至终支持他。
　　（b）Deletion。Justfromtheliteralmeaningofdeletion，weknowthatthroughthisapproach，themetaphorisdeletedintranslation。IfametaphorcanfindnometaphoricalequivalentinChinese，andafterathoroughanalysisofthetext，wefinditisredundantanditsfunctionhasbeenfulfilledinotherpartsofthetext，wecanchoosetodirectlydeleteit。Throughthisapproach，theoriginalaestheticvaluemaybelostandtheforceofinfectioninsourcelanguagemaybelessened。Ofcourse，sometimesitisinevitable。Butthetranslationcancomplementthelossbroughtaboutbydeletionofimagesthroughothermeans。ThefourwordidiomsinChineseoftencanplaythisrole。〔38〕
　　e。g。
　　（3
　　6）Theshipisplowingthesea。船在乘风破浪。到了1942年冬季，他们对于纳粹恐怖统治的抵抗已经名存实亡了。
　　（3
　　8）IhaveadreamthatonedayeventhestateofMississippi，adesertstateswelteringwiththeheatofinjusticeandoppressionwillbetransformedintoanoasisoffreedomandjustice。（MartinLutherKing，Jr。IHaveaDream）
　　我有一个梦想，有一天，甚至那倍受屈辱和迫害的凄凉的密西西比州，也将改造成自由与公正的绿洲。
　　Inexample
　　（3
　　8），theMississippiiscomparedtoadesertwhichformsasharpcontrastwithoasis。However，inthetranslation，thedesertisnottranslated，butreplacedby凄凉的toexpressthespeaker’sintention。Indoingso，thetranslationcanavoidmisunderstandingthatMississippiisarealdesertstate。
　　5。Conclusion
　　Basedonthebeliefthatmetaphorisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon，butalsoacognitivemode，themainideaofthethesisistotalkaboutthetranslationofmetaphorsfromEnglishintoChinesefromtheperspectiveofculturaldifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish。Forthispurpose，从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译从中英文化差异谈英语隐喻的汉译thebodyofthisthesisispidedintothreeparts。Thefirstpart，theauthormainlyanalyzestheinterrelationbetweenlanguage，cultureandtranslation。Thesecondpartintroducessomemajorfactorsrelatedtometaphor，includingdefinition，characteristicsandclassification。Thethirdpart，alsothemostimportantpartofthisthesis，thoroughlyillustratesthetranslationofmetaphorsfromEnglishintoChinesefromtheperspectiveofculturaldifferences，includingculturalconnotationofmetaphorsandapproachestotranslationofEnglishmetaphorsintermsofthecorrespondingrelations。
　　Asmetaphorhasrichculturalconnotations，inordertoachievesuccessfultranslationofEnglishmetaphors，atranslatorshouldcultivateandcontinuallyenhancehisownculturalawareness。Thisrequiresatranslatortohavebothbilingualcompetenceandbiculturalorevenmulticulturalknowledgeinordertoadapttoeffectivecommunicationindifferentculturalcontext。TheauthorhopesthesixapproachestotranslationofEnglishmetaphorswillbehelpful。Theyare：literaltranslation，reproducingthesameimageinthetargetlanguage；translationofmetaphorbysimile，retainingtheimage；substitutionoftheimageinthesourcelanguagewithastandardtargetlanguageimage；reproducingmetaphorwithsimile（ormetaphor）plussenseornote；conversionofmetaphortosense；anddeletion。
　　Ofcourse，theremustbemanyimproperplacesandimmatureviewsinthisthesis。Theauthorsincerelywishesforinpidualreader’scriticismandcorrection。
　　Bibliography〔2〕刘国忠。隐喻与跨文化交际〔J〕。安徽大学学报（哲学社会科学版），2003，5P121
　　〔3〕ZhangXiuguo。EnglishRhetoric。QinghuaUnversityPressandBeijingTranslationUnversityPress，2005P161
　　〔4〕HuShuzhong。EnglishRhetoric。ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress，2001P175
　　〔5〕张建新。从文化角度看英语隐喻的汉译〔D〕。中国期刊网。外交学院，2004P3
　　〔6〕毛荣贵。新世纪大学英汉翻译研究〔M〕。上海：上海交通大学出版社。2004P13
　　〔7〕DavidKatan。TranslationCultures：AnIntroductionforTranslators，InterpretersandMediators。ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress，2004P16
　　〔8〕王振亚。语言与文化〔M〕。北京：高等教育出版社。2004P1014
　　〔9〕张治英。英语隐喻形成的社会文化背景及其翻译〔J〕。湖南商学院学报（双月刊），1999，5P77
　　〔10〕同〔9〕P77〔12〕同〔3〕P161〔14〕同〔13〕P18
　　〔15〕同〔4〕P176〔17〕同〔16〕P1
　　〔18〕同〔16〕P1
　　〔19〕同〔3〕P161
　　〔20〕朱俊松，秦涛。形象化语言的译法论英语隐喻的可译性和翻译方法〔J〕。华东船舶工业学院学报（社会科学版），2004，3P65
　　〔21〕同〔9〕P78
　　〔22〕李健。英汉语隐喻的跨文化对比及翻译〔J〕。青海师范大学出版社（哲学社会科学版），2002，2P131
　　〔23〕陈凤。中英文化差异对汉英语言表达的影响〔J〕。中国地质大学学报（社会科学版），2001，1P43
　　〔24〕程同春。英语隐喻的思考与翻译〔J〕。中国科技翻译，2005，2P39
　　〔25〕纪晓静。汉英语中红之隐喻对比分析〔J〕。修辞学习，2003，4P48
　　〔26〕曲红。中英文化中的爱情隐喻〔J〕。株洲工学院学报，2002，5P51
　　〔27〕同〔28〕P44
　　〔28〕同〔28〕P44
　　〔29〕谷彦君。英语的社会文化背景与英语隐喻的形成〔J〕。佳木斯大学社会科学学报，2002，1P51
　　〔30〕蒋荣丰。论英汉隐喻互译中的对应问题