从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用

　　〔Abstract〕ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreek，eumeansgood，andpheme，speechorsaying，andtogetheritmeansliterallytospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner。Euphemism，asaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept，hasattractedpeople’sattentionforalongtime。Ithaslongbeenatopicofmuchinterest。Generallyspeaking，peoplewouldusemoreeuphemismsincommunicatingwiththeoppositesex；womenwouldusemorethanmenwould；olderpeoplewouldusemorethanyoungergenerations。Peoplewouldmoreuseeuphemismsinpowerrelationsthanincloserelations。Peoplewithhighereducationwouldusemoreeuphemisms。Theabovefactors：age，sex，socialstatus，education，etc。donotworkseparately。Incommunicating，theyareinterlacedwitheachotherandguideourchoiceofeuphemisms。Whethertouseeuphemismsortaboowordsalsodepends，toalargeextent，ontheattitudesofparticipants（particularlyspeakers）andthepurposeofconversations。Thearticleconsistsofsixparts。Partoneexplainswhatthemeaningofeuphemismis。ParttwoissayingtheCooperativePrincipleinbriefly。CooperativePrinciple，thecornerstonetheoryofpragmatics，isoneofthemainprinciplesthatguidepeople’scommunication。TheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximscanexplainwhattheliteralmeaningisanditsrealintentionincommunicationandensurethatinanexchangeofconversation。Partthreepresents，theformationeuphemism，namely，formalinnovation，semanticinnovation，rhetoricaldevices，andgrammaticalways。Partfourdiscussesthecommunicativefunctionofeuphemismissubstitution，politeness，disguise，defense，etc。Partfiveservesasthemainbodyofthisarticle。Generallyspeaking，euphemismsviolatetheQuality，QuantityandMannerMaximoftheCPduetodifferentreasonslikesubstitution，disguiseetc。AndbasicallyeuphemismsobservetheRelationMaxim。Fromtheanalysis，itcanbealsofoundthatsometimesaneuphemismcanberegardedasviolationoftwomaximsoftheCPatthesametime。Partsixconcludesthewholearticle。
　　〔KeyWords〕CooperativePrinciple；Euphemism；Communicativefunction
　　【摘要】委婉语（euphemism）一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是好的，pheme意思是话语，因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念，同时也是一种文化现象，长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语，年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在权势关系的语境中往往要比在亲密关系的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言谈，因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交际中，他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一，是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系，这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式：形式变化，语义变化，修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体，并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则，基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。
　　【关键字】合作原则；委婉语；交际功能
　　1。IntroductionThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekeumeaninggoodandphememeaningspeechorsaying，andthusmeansliterallytospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner〔3〕。Euphemismshavevariousreasonsforexistence。Theyconcealthethingspeoplefearthemostdeath，thedead，thesupernatural。Theycoverupthefactsoflifeofsexandreproductionandexcretionwhichinevitablyremindeventhemostrefinedpeoplethattheyaremadeofclay，orworse。Theyarebelovedbyinpidualsandinstitutions（governments，especially）thatareanxioustopresentonlythehandsomestpossibleimagesofthemselvestotheworld。Andtheyareimbeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus，eventhosewhopridethemselvesonbEingplainspoken，evergetthroughadaywithoutusingthem。ButsomepeoplestillmistaketheeuphemismsintheconversationbytheCooperativeprinciple。ViolatingtheCP，peoplealsocancontinuetheconversationwitheuphemisms，whichmaketheauthorinterestinattitudesofparticipantsandthepurposeofconversation。Thatisourbodytoday。
　　2。Formationofeuphemisms
　　2。1Formalinnovation
　　Toavoidtheemergenceofcertainletterorsoundmayachievetheeffectofeuphemizing。Theformalinnovationcanhideaudiovisuallythosewordswedon’twanttosayorweshouldn’tsaysoastoachievebetteroutcomeincommunication。
　　2。1。1Abbreviation
　　AbbreviationistheshorteningofawordandmaybeseenintheuseoftheBritishexpressionLADIESforladies’room。TherealsoisGENTSforgentlemen’sroom。Apocopationisanotherformofabbreviationapparentintheuseofvampforvampireheremeaningaseductivewoman。Andlavisforlavatory；homoisforhomosexual；cocaisforcocaine；braisforbrassiere。
　　2。1。3Initialing
　　InitialingistheuseofacronymsinsteadofthEIrcomponentpartsasinJCforJesusChrist，BMforbowelmovement〔4〕，W。Cforwatercloset，B。Oforbodyodor，V。Dforvenerealdisease，AIDSforacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome，SARSforsevereacuterespiratorysyndrome〔5〕。
　　2。1。4Backforming
　　Backformingisthesubstitutionforonepartofspeech（usedinshortenedform）foranother，asinburgle（rob）whichisderivedfromburglar〔6〕。
　　2。1。5Reduplication
　　Reduplicationistherepetitionofasyllableorletterofaword。Particularlycommoninchildren’sbathroomvocabulary，itsubstitutespeepeeforpiss，poopooforbowelmovement〔7〕。
　　2。1。6Blendword
　　Ablendwordisaformofphoneticdistortioninwhichtwoormorewordsaresqueezedtogetherbothorthographicallyandphonetically。Anexampleofthisisgezundaforachamberpot，atermderivedfromthefactthatthisobjectgoesunderthebed〔8〕。
　　2。1。7Diminutive
　　Adiminutiveistheformationofanewtermbynickingorshorteninganameandaddingasuffixindicatingaffectionorsmallness。Heinie，forexample，isthediminutiveofhindendandreferstothebuttocks〔9〕。
　　2。2Semanticinnovation
　　2。2。1Borrowing
　　Mostobviously，euphemismsmaybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguagestermsthatarelessfreightedwithnegativeassociations。Thus，weuseGreekandLatinexpressionsformanybodilypartsandfunctions。Wehavecoinedhalitosis（badbreath）fromtheLatin（halitus）forbreathandwehavesubstitutedmicturitionforthemorevulgarIndoEuropeanPiss。Inaddition，Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientificoracademicterms，whicharebelievedtobemoreeuphemisticandobjectivethantheusualterms，suchasmagneticforsexyandperspireforsweatandsoon。
　　2。2。2Widening
　　Euphemismsmaybemadebyasemanticprocesscalledwidening。Whenaspecifictermbecomestoopainfulorvivid，wemoveupintheladderofabstraction。Inthisway，cancerbecomesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundation。Sometimes，inadditiontowideningwepidethenegativeconnotationsofasingledirecttermbetweentwoormorewords。Insteadofsayingsyphilisopenly，wespeakofasocialdisease。
　　2。2。3Semanticshift
　　Alliedtothephenomenonofwideningisthatofsemanticshift。Thisisthesubstitutionofthewhole，orasimilargenerality，forthespecificpartwedonotchoosetodiscuss。Wemaycreatesuchmetonymies（substitutionsofthewholeforthepart）asrearendforbuttocks。Sometimes，asintheexpressionstosleepwithgotobedwithsomeone〔10〕，weusewordsnamingthelargereventinplaceofmoreprecisereferencestothesexualrelationsthatarepartoftheprocess。
　　2。3Rhetoricaldevices
　　2。3。1Metaphor
　　Euphemismsmaybemadebyaprocesscalledmetaphoricaltransfer，thecomparisonofthingsofonekindtothingsofanother。Theeuphemismschosenareoftenromanticizing，poeticizingandsofteningoftheoriginalwordslikegotosleep；gotohislonghome；behomeandfree；restinpeace；beatrest；gotoHeavenParadise；joinonesancestors；begatheredtoonesfathers；jointheimmoralsfordie〔11〕，shockforrandombombing，constructivedestructionforseveredamage，havearoadtotravelforhavealongtimetoreachanagreementandetc。。
　　2。3。2Aposiopesis
　　InEnglish，thereisakindofrhetoriccalledaposiopesisthatcanalsoactasthewayofeuphemizing。Whenwethinkweshouldnotsaysomethingundercertainconditions，wesuddenlystopaswhenwesaysomeoneisout（ofwork）；sheisexpecting（ababy）；totakeprecautions（againstpregnancy）；todepart（fromthisworld）〔12〕
　　2。3。3Analogy
　　Analogycanoftenbeseeninthevocabulariesofwork。Atendencytoelevatemenialorunskilledjobssometimessubstitutingagrandtitleforalargesalarycanmakeoffalsmelllikearosebypromotinggarbagementosanitationengineersoreventowastereductionmanagers。Byimplication，theybecomehighlytrainedtechniciansandexecutives。Healthclubstaffsbecomefitnesscoordinators，andsenatorsnowhavetheirshoesshinedbythefootwearmaintenanceengineer，formerlytheSenatebootblack。Evenifyouarenotagovernmentofficial，yourjanitorisnowyourbuidingmaintenanceengineer。
　　2。3。4Understatement
　　Understatementdisplayspeople’sdesiretomaketheirlanguagelesspainfulanddirect。Sothereisneveranuglywomaninthisworld，sheisatleastplain。Teachersonlytellparentsthattheirchildisabitslowforhisage，notretarded。Andcallseniorcitizenforoldperson。Takeothersthingswithoutpermissioncanbeinsteadofsteal。
　　2。3。5Periphrasis
　　Periphrasisisjustbeatingaroundthebush。Peopleoftensayeuphemismsareweaselwords，becausepeoplenevercallaspadeaspadewhenusingeuphemisms。Fartisnotpleasanttoear，sopeoplecallitwindfromthebehind。Someonewantsyoutogoaway，butheonlysayshewillcallyourcarriageforyou。Someonelivingatthegovernmentexpensemaymakeyouenvyhim，butactuallyheisinprison。ManysayingsaboutgoingtoWCmakeagooduseofperiphrasislikewashone’shands，powderone’snose，spendapenny。Sodothedropforadjustmentdownward〔13〕
　　2。4。Grammaticalways
　　AccordingtoBolinger，Euphemismisnotrestrictedtothelexicon。Therearegrammaticalwaysoftoningsomethingdown。Therefore，euphemizingshouldnotbelimitedtolexicalways；itcanalsobeachievedbygrammaticalways。
　　2。4。1Tense
　　InEnglish，tensecanlendalittleeuphemisticcolortotheexpressionsforsomethingundesired。Especiallywhenpeopleusewant，hope，thinkandwonderorwordslikethattheymayalsomakeuseofthetensetosoundmoreeuphemistically。Forexample，Iwonderedifyouwouldmindhelpingme？orIwonderedifyoucouldhelpme？〔14〕。Askinghelpthisway，peoplewon’tfeelsoembarrassediftheywererefused。
　　2。4。2Syntacticalnegation
　　Thismethodcanlessonthepainfulimpactofthelanguagethatisnotwelcomed。Wesaysheisnotpretty（Actuallysheisveryugly），butthatisacceptable，becausenotprettydoesnotequaltougly，itcouldbeplaintoo。Notprettyhasawiderrangeofmeaningthanugly。Similarusagesareasthefollowing：Idon’tthink，Iamafraid，Iamnotsure，Idontlike，etc。
　　2。4。3Firstpersonalpronouns
　　Theuseoffirstpersonalpronounslikewe，ours，us，etc，canalsomakeourspeechessoundmoreeuphemistic。Youwouldfeelmorewelcomedifyouusedweorourquiteoften。Ifadoctorsaidtoyouhowdowefeeltoday，youwouldfeelverywarmandcomfortable，becauseitmakesyouthinkthatthiskinddoctortakesyourillnessasmutualconcern。
　　3Communicativefunctionsofeuphemisms
　　Languageisforcommunication，whereaseuphemismsmayleadtobettercommunication。Usingeuphemismscanavoidbeingpresumptuousinlanguagecommunication。Whenwehavetotouchsometopicsthatareunpleasant，wetendtochoosemoreeuphemisticexpressionstorefertothosepainfultopicssoasnottohurtthehearer’sfeeling。WecanfindthetheoreticalfoundationforthismotivationinLeech’sPolitenessPrinciple。Euphemismsjustminimizetheimpolitenessandmaximizethepolitenessincommunication。ThefunctionsofeuphemismsareinagreementwiththoseofPolitenessPrincipletoo，astheybothoffermorebenefittothehearerandleavemorecosttothespeaker，withthepurposethatbothofthetwosideswillfeelrespectedandhavefavorableimpressionofeachother。Aspolitenessisusuallyregardedasthemanifestationofhumancivilization，euphemismisoneofthemosteffectivestrategiestodisplaypolitenesswhilemodulatinginterpersonalrelationshipinhumancommunication。
　　3。1Substitution
　　AccordingtothedefinitionsofeuphemismandweknowthatagreatnumberofEnglisheuphemismsserveasthesubstitutionsforverbaltaboos。Thetermtaboo（tameaningmark，boomeaningexceedingly）ofPolynesianorigindenotesanythinglinguisticandnonlinguistic，whichisprohibitedorforbidden。Tabooreferstothesituationinwhichawordornamecanbeusedinacommunityonlyunderspecialconditions，whetheronlybycertainpersonsoronlyincertaincircumstances。Justasviolatingaculturaltaboocanbequiteoffensive，soisitwithaverbaltabooinpressconferences。Thewordhasbeenandcontinuestobeinmostsocietiesperceivedasapowerfulinstrumentthatmayevokeevilspirits，makebadthingshappenandinstigatetoviolenceandrevolutionandnumerousotheractivities。Whiletabooofwordsoccurswhenaparticulartopicisconsideredvalidfordiscussion，euphemisticexpressionortermsarerequired。Sodiplomaticeuphemismshaveaveryseriousreasonforbeing。Theycanconcealthethingspeoplefearmostdeath，thedeadorthesupernatural。Euphemismscanalsoeliminateunhappiness，embarrassmentandfearetc。soastorelievepeoplepsychologically。
　　3。2Politeness
　　Politenessisanotherveryimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinsociallife。Someoftheeuphemismsareusedtoavoidcrudenessandindecencyforthesakeofapoliteconversation。〔15〕GriceformulatedCooperativePrincipleofutteranceinwhichtheMaximofMannerwasdefinedasBeperspicuousandspecific；Toavoidobscurity；Toavoidambiguity；Tobebriefandtobeorderly。TheroundaboutnatureofeuphemismsgoesagainsttheMaximofManner，whichcanonlybefairlyexplainedwellbyLeech’sPolitenessPrincipleApprobationMaxim：minimizedispraiseofother，maximizepraiseofother。Inotherwords，euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions。
　　3。3Disguise
　　Besidesthetwofunctionsofeuphemismsmentionedabove，thereisstillanotheronemoreimportantfunctionatworkineuphemisticcommunication，namely，theDisguiseFunction。Herewemeanthatbecauseofthevaguenessofeuphemisms，ithasbecomeaveryimportanttoolforpoliticalleadersorthediplomatsorstatesmentodistortthefactsorandpresentafalsepictureofpeaceandprosperityandtobeautifywhatevertheauthorityhavedone。Forexample，intheIraqWar，theyuseOperationIraqiFreedomforbeautifyingtheirmilitaryinvasion，possiblemovementreferstomilitaryattack，airoperationorairstrikesforairattack，enterthewartoshowtheirreluctancetofightthewaretc。andwemayfindmanysuchkindoftheseeuphemismsinpressconferences。Themostimportantandultimatefunctionorpurposeoftheuseofdiplomaticeuphemismsinpressconferencesistodisguiseorbeautifytheirinvasiveessenceorotherevilactionsortheseparationofwordsfromtruth。InAmericanandBritishsocietiesnowadays，diplomaticeuphemismsarealwayspurposelydevisedtodisguisescandalsinwarsandpolitics，deliberatelyinventedtobeautifylowlyoccupationsandexcessivelyinflatedtopromotesalesinadvertisement。
　　4。TheCooperativePrinciple
　　Beforegoingon，welookattwoexamples，asfollows：
　　（1）A：Canyoutellmethetime？
　　B：Well，themailhasalreadycome。
　　（2）A：AreyougoingtoJohn’sbirthdayparty？
　　B：I’veheardMaryisgoing。〔16〕
　　Itseemstherearesomemistakeintheconversations。Butinfact，itiscorrect。TheCooperativePrinciplewillhelpusunderstandmore。
　　TheCooperativePrincipleisasfollows：Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired，atthestageatwhichitoccurs，bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged。〔17〕
　　AccordingGrice，Cooperativeprincipleisclassifiedintofourcategories：quantity，quality，relationandmanner。Thecategoryofquantityrelatestothequantityofinformationtobeprovided，andunderitfallthefollowingmaxims：
　　4。1ThemaximofQuality：
　　Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue，。specifically：
　　（i）donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse。
　　（ii）donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence〔18〕
　　4。2ThemaximofQuantity：
　　（i）Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange
　　（ii）Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired〔19〕
　　4。3ThemaximofRelation：
　　Makeyourcontributionrelevant。〔20〕
　　4。4ThemaximofManner：
　　Beperspicuousandspecifically：
　　（i）avoidobscurityofexpression。
　　（ii）avoidambiguity。
　　（iii）bebrief
　　（iv）beorderly。〔21〕
　　Fromwhatmentionedabove，wemayknowthattheCooperativePrincipleenablesoneparticipantinaconversationtocommunicateontheassumptionthattheotherparticipantisbEingcooperative。ThesefourmaximsformanecessarypartofthedescriptionoflinguisticmeaninginthattheyexplainhowitisthatthespeakersoftenmeanmorethantheysayinthEIrcommunications。
　　Wemaydecidetowithholdwhateverinformationwepossess：’Nocomment！’Wemayinadvertentlyinfringeamaximorwecansecretlyviolateamaxime。g。AcouldmaliciouslyandfalselytellBthatJanethadwalkedintheoppositedirectionfromthepostoffice。Ormoreimportantlywecanmakeablatantshowofbreakingoneofthemaxims（Gricetermsthisfloutingamaxim），inordertoleadtheaddresseetolookforacovert，impliedmeaning。〔22〕。Forexamples，
　　（3）Atthetimeofrecording，allthemembersofthecastweremembersofTheBBCPlayers。（Implicature：OneormoreofthemarenolongermembersofTheBBCPlayers。）〔23〕
　　Generallyspeaking，inGrice’sanalysis，thespeaker’sfloutingofamaximcombinedwiththehearer’sassumptionthatthespeakerhasnorreallyabandonedthecooperativeprincipleleadstoanimplicature〔24〕。Onethingthatdeservesourattentionisthatthefourmaxims，expressedintheimperativemoodhavesometimesbeenmisunderstoodasinstructionsforaspeakertobehaveinconversation。
　　5。PossibleviolatingtheCooperativePrincipleintheuseofeuphemisms
　　Inthelightoftheforegoingliteraturereviewandthetheoreticalbases，weknowthateuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsareimportantandpeopleoftenusethemincommunication。Inreality，itcanbefoundthatthesediplomatsandstatesmenetc。alsouseeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsinthequestionanswerpatterns。Thesestatesmenmakesharpthingsorunpleasantthingssoundpleasantetc。otherwisetheuseofeuphemismsmayevencausemisunderstandings。SothenextwewilltalkaboutcommunicationwiththetheoriesofCooperativePrinciple。Forexample，tobespecific，diplomaticeuphemismsofpressconferencesaremainlychosenasthesubstitutionofanagreeableorinoffensivewordorexpressionforonethatisharsh，indelicateorunpleasanttotheotherside。Theyarechosenfromboththelexicalapproachandtherhetoricalapproach。
　　Incommunicationlikethequestionanswerpatternsinpressconferences，generallypeopleorparticipantsarerequiredtoobservetheCPinordertomaketheirconversationmovesforwardsmoothlyandsuccessfully。Butinreality，inordertomeetacertaincommunicativeneed，especiallyinpressconferencesconcerningdiplomacy，actuallypeopleseldomspeaksbyalwaysfaithfullyobservingthesefourmaximsoftheCP。ThereforeGricehimselfalsosuggests5waysparticipantscandealwiththesemaxims。First，speakerscanstraightforwardlyfollowthemaxims，thatis，theycanspeakthetruthwhilegivingjustenoughrelevantinformationinaclear，unambiguous，succinctandorderlymanner。Manypeopledojustthatmostoftime。Second，someonemayviolateamaxim，asyouwoulddoifyoutoldadeliberatelie。Athirdthingthatcanhappenisthataspeakercan‘optout’ofamaxim，thisseemstobeanuncommonoccurrence。Thefourthpossibilityisthemaximclash；casesinwhichyouwouldhavetoviolateonemaximinordertofulfillanother。Andperhapsthisisthemostcaseofviolationofthemaximsinpressconferences。Thefifthandmostintriguingwaytodealwiththemaximsofconversationistofloutoneofthem。Whenamaximisflouted，aspeakerdoesntobservethemaxim，butcannotbeaccusedofviolatingiteither，becausethetransgressionissoflagrantthatitistotallyobviousthatthespeakerknowsheorsheisnotobservingitandrealizeseveryoneelseintheconversationknowsittoo。
　　TheexistenceofthemaximsoftheCPmakestheconversationalimplicaturepossibleespeciallyontheconditionslikeinpressconferencesetc。。Conversationalimplicatureallowsaspeakerofanysideinpressconferencestoconveymeaningbeyondwhatisliterallyexpressed。Speakersinpressconferencescanoftenuseeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionstoproduceconversationalimplicatureormoremeaningthatthehearerscanalsofigureoutitsrealintentionsratherthantheliteralmeaningbyviolatingsomecertainmaxims。
　　5。1。ViolationofQualityMaxim
　　ViolationofQualityMaximmeansbysayingthingsthatarenottrueorthefactandmakingirresponsibleandinsincereremarksbythespeakers。Itcanproducesomespecificalcontent：humor，ordisguisetheintentionsuchasMinistryofDefenceforMinistryofWar，lifeinsurenceforinsurancewhenyouaredead，freedomfightersforterrorists。〔25〕Franklyspeaking，euphemismshaveatendencytoviolateQualityMaximinordertoexpressunpleasantthingsorideasetc。inanindirect，roundaboutandpleasantway。Thereforeifhearerswanttoknowtherealintentions，theyshouldinfertheconversationalimplicaturefromtheillocutionarymeaningbasedonthespecialcontext。MoreoverhyperboleandunderstatementalsodontobeytheQualityMaxim，forallthesecontributionaretrue。Letuslookatsomeexamplesasfollows：
　　（4）Q：BritainandFrancebothputtroopsonstandbyalertforpossiblemovementintoKosovo。WhilehastheU。S。putanyunitsonstandbyforapossiblemovementtoKosovo？
　　A：Inviewofthefactthatourforcesremainattheircurrentstateofreadiness。Thereincreasethatstateofalertnessatthispoint。Obviouslyonshortstandbyairoperations，would。
　　IntheaboveQApatternsofthetranscripts，wecanseediplomaticeuphemismslikepossiblemovement，attheircurrentstateofreadinessandairoperationetc。areusedinpressconferencesthatviolatetheQualityMaxim。Fromthespecificcontextweknowthatherepossiblemovementmainlymeanspossiblemilitaryattack，attheircurrentstateofreadinessreferstoattheircurrentstateoffightingandairoperationreferstoairwarorairfightetc。。StillwecanfindmoreexamplesviolatingQualityMaximoftheCPinpressconferenceslikeMinistryofDefenseforMinistryofWar，enteringintoKosovoorgointoKosovoforinvadeKosovoorinvasionandinformationformilitaryintelligenceandalsoactivedefenseforattacketc。。Bysayingthat，theauthoritycandistortthefactstosomeextentandalsoreduceitsbadimpressionsonthepublic。Hencetheauthoritycanpresentafalsepicturetothepublicandtobeautifyordisguisewhatevertheyhavedone。
　　5。2ViolationofQuantityMaxim
　　ViolationofQuantityMaximisbyprovidingnoninformativeinformationorbyeitherprovidinglessormoreinformationthanactuallyneeded。Strictlyspeaking，acronymandabbreviation，twomainwaysoftheformationofeuphemism，arethetwomainwaysofviolatingtheQuantityMaxim。Forexample，executeisforexecutedeathpenalty，IneedtogoisforIneedtogotothelavatory，commfuforcompletemonumentalmilitaryfuckup，S。O。Sforsonofabitch。〔26〕SomeeuphemismsoreuphemisticexpressionsarecreatedbycontributinglessinformationtoviolatetheQuantityMaximinordertomakeunpleasant，rudeoroffensivewordssoundmorepleasant，politeandelegant。LetushavealookatsomeexpressionsusedinpressconferencesviolatetheQuantityMaximoftheCP。
　　（5）Q：GeneralNaumannsaidmilitarytargets？
　　A：（Cohen）：AsweindicatedtheACTORDwasSerbianforceswerereallyposingaseriousthreattoseveralthecoldorfromstarving。ThatACTORDwasinnocentpeople。ThatACTORDremainsGeneralNaumannhasreferredto。
　　Letushavealookatanotherexample：
　　（6）Q：General，CouldyouintheeventofaconflictandintermsofaliaisonwiththeNGOsand？
　　A：Well，theirroleiscivilmilitaryaffairsorganizations，intheCENTCOMtheater
　　IntheabovetwoquestionanswerpatternsinpressconferenceswemaysaythatthesediplomaticeuphemismsviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausetheyfailedtogiveustherightamountofinformationweneededorwemayalsosaythattheyprovidedlessinformation。Byusingtheseeuphemismsthespeakerslikethediplomatsandstatesmenetc。canavoidmentioningtheseunpleasanttermsornotionslikecentralcommandandactivationorderetc。inpressconferences。
　　Amongtheeuphemismsusedinpressconferences，wemaystillfindthatsomeoftheeuphemismscanberegardedasaspecialcasethatviolateboththeQualityMaximandtheQuantityMaximetc。。HenceinabroadsensewemaysaythateuphemismsthatviolatetheQualityMaximcanalsoberegardedasaspecialcasethatviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausethetwomaximsarecloselyrelated。IfaeuphemismviolatesQualityMaxim，italsoviolatesQuantityMaximtoacertainextent。Forexample，theeuphemismslikepossiblemovementforpossiblemilitaryattackorpossiblewar；broughttheworldtogethermainlyreferstothosecountriesledbytheUSA。Hencefromthispointofviewwemaythateuphemismslikepossiblemovement，broughttheworldtogetheretc。notonlyviolatetheQualityMaximbutalsoviolatetheQuantityMaximbecausetoacertainextenttheydistortthefactsandprovidelessinformationthanpeopleactuallyneed。
　　5。3EuphemismsandtheRelationMaxim
　　AswementionedbeforethattheMaximofRelationreferstoBerelevantandviolationofRelationMaximmeansthattheutteranceofaspeakerisirrelevanttotheconversationorthespecificcontextforsomereasonsorsomepurposes。SometimeswemayfindEnglisheuphemismsaretouseirrelevantutterancesonthesurfacetoexpresssomethingthatthespeakerswanttosayandcannotsay。InfacttheimpliedmeaningoftheutterancesisrelevantpartiallybecausetheformationofEnglisheuphemismsabidestheseformativeprincipleslikepleasantsoundprincipleetc。。Forexample，
　　（7）Iapproachedherveryhesitatly。
　　Wanttocomeandplay？
　　Piquettelookedatmewithasudduenflashofscorn。
　　Iaintakid，shesaid。
　　Wounded，Istampedangrilyaway。。。〔27〕
　　Here，Iaintakidseemsnorelationtothisconversation。ButthereimplicaturemeaningisonlykidsplayIaintkidIwontplaywithyou。So，itisindirectrefuseofcommunicating。InEnglishtopassawayisusedinaeuphemisticsensefortodienow。Thedenotationoftopassawayistogoawayforatime；whiletodiemeanstogoawayforever。TodieiseuphemizedastogoawaybyviolatingtheRelationMaximonthesurface，infact，boththetwophraseshavetherelevantmeaningtotogoaway。Theirdifferenceliesonlyinthetime，oneisforaperiodoftime，theotherisforever。Sowhenthespeakerusetopassawaytoreplacetodie，thehearersmayinfertheconversationalimplicatureoftodiefromtherelevantmeaningtogoaway。Sowithtimegoeson，itisnowalmostusedasafixedusagefortodieinalmostallthecircumstances。
　　5。4ViolationofMannerMaxim
　　ViolationofMannerMaximmeansgivingobscureandambiguousinformationetc。。Sometimesunderthecommunicativecircumstances，thespeaker，inordertoavoidmentioningunpleasantandembarrassedthingsinadirectway，saysomethingobscurelyandambiguously，thenthehearersshouldcarefullyinfertheconversationalimplicatureofthespeakerandwhatistheirrealintentionsandmeaningaccordingtothespecificcontext。SowemayfindmanyeuphemismstendtoviolatetheMaximofMannersoastoachievethemild，agreeable，roundaboutandpleasantsoundeffects。
　　WecanalsotakethefollowingasexamplestoillustratehoweuphemismsviolatetheMannerMaxim。Aeducatorcannotsayastudentislazy，idle，stupid，orclever。Insteadofthemiseducationallyandsociallydisadvantagedgroups，underachieved，thoseonthelowerendoftheabilityscale，highverbalabilitysubjects，disadvantagedhomeenviornments，underprivilegedchild。〔28〕Obviously，thesewordsviolatesMannerMaximofbeingbrief。
　　Anotherexample，Perhapsyouhadbettergetyouraffairsinorder。Thisisanotionofdeathfromthedoctor。itswordybutnotunnecessary。onewayticketisfordie。Itreflectonesexperienceandcognition。
　　6。Conclusion
　　Aswestatedearlier，euphemismisoneoftheimportantanduniversallinguisticphenomena。Duetothespecialcharacteristicslikesubstitution，indirectnessetc。itisbecomingoneofthemaincommunicativeapproachesThisthesishasattemptedtostudytheeuphemisticexpressionsusedinthequestionanswerpatternsfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics。
　　Thearticleisanoverviewofthefunctionsandcommunicativefunctionsofeuphemism，andfromthepragmaticanalysisofthematerials，itcanbeseenclearlythattheuseofeuphemismsbasicallyviolatetheQualityMaxim，theQuantityMaxim，andtheMannerMaximoftheCooperativePrincipleandthefrequencyofviolatingtheQualityMaximisthehighestamongthethreeones。Thatistosay，theeuphemismsusedinthequestionanswerpatternsgenerallydonotviolatetheRelationMaximoftheCooperativePrinciple。
　　ThereisanoldsayinginEnglish：Necessityisthemotherofinvention。Thecreationofeuphemismsalsocannotdepartfrompeople’sneedsofthem。Peopleneedeuphemismsforsocialcommunication，toeuphemizethetaboo，toshowtheirpolitenessandtodisguise。Asasociolinguisticphenomenon，theformationofeuphemismsistheresultofthecombinationofvarioussocialpsychologicalfactorsandpragmaticfactors。
　　StudiesoneuphemismsfromapragmaticperspectiverevealhoweuphemismsflouttheCooperativePrinciplesoastoobeythePolitenessPrincipleincommunicationandhowfactorsfromtheirsocioculturalandcommunicationalcontextinfluencetheirapplicationincommunication。Anychangeofoneormorefactorsofacommunicationevent，willhaveaneffectonourdecisionofwhethertouseeuphemisms。Theexpressiveeuphemismsplayanonfungibleroleincommunication。Itiseuphemismthatmakeslanguagemorepowerful，magicalandpleasant。People’sspeechdoesreflecttheirbackground，theiractivities，andthevaluestheyhold，therefore，wecanlearnmuchabouttheEnglishpeoplebylookingattheiruseofeuphemisms。ThestudiesonEnglisheuphemismscannotonlyhelptodevelopinterculturalcommunicativecompetence，butalsoenlightenEnglishlanguagelearningandteaching。Therefore，multidisciplinary，multiangle，andmultilevelstudiesoneuphemismsarenecessaryforEnglishlearnerstounderstandtheEnglishhistoryandsocietyandcommunicatewithnativeEnglishspeakersbetter。Therearestillalotinthisfieldwaitingtobeexplored，andeuphemismsdeservemoreattentionandcomprehensivestudies。
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