于滨：Theanniversaryelegy

　　W，toborrowTomBsphrase，finallyfadesawayinEastAsnations，the60thanniversaryoftheendofWorldWarIIcelebratedonAugust15tomarkthedaywhenJapansurrenderedmaywellberememberedasaturningpointwhentheregiondidnotmoveforwardintothefuturebutbacktowardthepast，inbothstyleandsubstance。
　　WhilecommemorationsinEuropewerejoinedbybothvictorsandvanquished，Asianshavegonetheirseparateways：theJapanesetoHiroshima，YasukuniShrineorStheChinesetoBsMarcoPoloBridge，theNanjingMassacreMuseumorHarbin（wheretheJapanesebiologicalwarfareUnit731wasstationed）；andotherstoSeoul，HongKong，Singapore，Manila，andsoon。
　　ThesubstanceandchemistryofthoseeventsalsodiffervastlyinEuropeandAsia。GatheringsatNormandy，Moscow，Warsaw，BerlinandDresdenconveyednotonlypainfulreflectionbutalsoheartfeltremorse，reciprocalforgiveness，genuinereconciliationandadeterminationnottoforgetandrepeatthegreatestslaughterinhumanhistory。Europehasindeedturnedahistoricalcorner。Insharpcontrast，theanniversaryyearinAsiahassofarwitnessedhypernationalism，risingmutualhatred，andintensifyinginterstaterivalry。
　　Theagonyandironyofwar
　　ThereareplentyofreasonswhyAsianshavenotfounditeasytobecomereconciledtothepast，evenafter60years。Foronething，WorldWarIIbothbeganandendedinAsia。ItalsolastedlongerandwasmoredevastatingthanthewarinEurope。Theballstartedrollingin1931whenJapanseizedthethreenortheasternprovincesofChinaandturnedthemintotheJapanesecolonyofManchukuo。ThiswasfiveyearsbeforeHitlersenttroopsintotheRhineland，eightyearsbeforetheofficialstartofWorldWarIIinEuropewiththeGermanattackonPoland，andfully10yearsbeforePearlHarborin1941。Js1931annexationofManchuriawasalsothebeginningoftheendoftheVersaillessystemputinplacebytheWesterndemocraciesin1919。WhentheLeagueofNations，thepredecessoroftheUnitedNations，ruledthatJManchuriaI，Tokyoangrilywithdrewfromitin1933。ToftheJapanesewasechoedandfollowedbyGermany，whichwithdrewfromtheLeaguein1933。Italyfollowedin1937，Austriain1938andSpainin1939。Therestishistory。
　　Despitethedifferentdurationsofthewar14yearsinAsia（193145）versussixyearsinEurope（193945）thetwotheaterswereintimatelyconnected，ironically，bytheactionandinactionoftheUnitedStates。TheEuropeandemocraciesweretotallyconsumedbytheirownwarandpaidlittleattentiontoAsia，saveamajorcampaignbytheBritishinBurma。TheUnitedStates，acrucialweightindecidingthefinaloutcomeinbothsectors，wasstillsittingonthefence。HarrySTruman，thenDemocraticsenatorfromMissouri，explicitlyexpressedthefeelingsofmanyAmericanswhenhesaidinJune1941，IfweseethatGermanyiswinningweshouldhelpRussia，andifRussiaiswinningweoughttohelpGermanyandthatwayletthemkillasmany〔ofeachother〕aspossible，althoughItwanttoseeHitlervictoriousunderanycircumstances。〔1〕Inactuality，eversincethe1937NeutralityActtheUS。BelligerentscouldpurchasecertainwarmaterialsfromtheUSiftheypaidcashandcarriedthemawayintheirownships。Inshort，MMpolicyofmaximizingprofitwhileminimizingrisks。
　　EvenafterGermany，ItalyandJapansignedtheTripartitePacttoformtheAxisblocinSeptember1940，theonlythingFDR（presidentRoosevelt）goodstotheEuropeanallies，afterthewar。InAsia，JapanremainedoneofthelargesttradingpartnersoftheUS，whiletheEsImperialArmydevastatedCsvastterritory。FollowingtheJsmoveintoIndochinainthesummerof1941，theUSinitiatedanoilembargoagainstJapan。TwasinadvertentlymadebylowerlevelbureaucratswhowentaheadwithatotalstoppageofoilshipmentstoJapanwhenFDRmeantonlyapartialembargo。OnlyafterJsattackonPearlHarbordidtheUShavenochoicebuttodeclarewaronbothJapanandGermany。ThustheresolutionofthewarinEuropewashastenedbyeventsinAsia。
　　Fastforwardto1945，whenAsiawasalsothelasttostopfighting。After50yearsofwarwithitsneighborsandvariousWesternpowersinAsia，theunprecedentedmilitaryascendancyoftheEmpireoftheSunwasfinallyarrestedin1945，thankstothecombinedeffortsofthreecontinentalpowersAmerica，China，andRussiaplusUSatomicweapons。ThisfirstwartoengulfthewholeofAsiathereforeeffectivelymadeWorldWarIIaconflictonatrulyglobalscale。TheUnitedStatesofAmerica，theonlyrealwinnerofthewar，
　　wasabletoachieveanunprecedentedglobalreachinthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury，thankstoitsidealgeostrategiclocationanditslateentryintothewar。
　　Ataleoftwoaxispowers
　　WhenthegunsfinallyfellsilentacrossAsia，35millionChinesehaddied，alongwith27millionRussians，10millionGermans，threemillionJapanese，870，000French，760，000Britishand600，000Americans。Themannerinwhichtheydied，however，wassignificantlydifferentfrompreviousconflicts。WhereasmilitaryoperationsinEuropewerefarmoreeffectiveanddestructive，theywerealsofoughtbetweentwomoreorlessequallyequippedanddeterminedsides。TheGrelativelyhighcasualtyfigure（10millioninsixyears）testifiestotheseverityofthewar。Bycontrast，JsaggressionagainstChinawasverymuchaonesidedslaughterwiththeChineseviewedaseasyprey。ThehugedifferencebetweentheChineseandJapanesecasualtiesclearlyindicatestheasymmetry（Japanesemilitaryrecordsshowthatsome400，000JapanesemilitarypersonneldiedinChinaoutofthetotalof1。9millionbetween1937and1945）。
　　ManyoftheWorldWarIIcasualtieswerecivilians。InEurope，bothsidesresortedtotheuseofdeadlyforceagainstthecivilianpopulation。（AndofcourseHsattemptedexterminationoftheJewskilledanadditionalsixmillion。）InAsia，beforetheUSstartedlargescaleairraidsagainstJapanesecitiesinMarch1945，civiliancasualtieslargelymeanttheslaughterofdefenselessChinesebytheJapaneseinvadingarmy。DuringthenotoriousRapeofNankingin1937，thekillingandrapingspreewentuncheckedforthreemonthsandanestimated300，000Chinesedied。〔2〕
　　Wddoeverythingforthesakeoftheemperor，raping，killing，everything，explainedMasayoEnomoto，aformerJapanesesoldier（193945）inarecentUSTVinterview。Wdmarchintoavillage，findthemenandquestionthemastowheretheykepttheirarms。Andwhenwefinishedquestioningthem，dkillthem。WeweretolditwastoogoodtokillChinesewithourswords。Soweusedstones，recalledHajimeKondo，anotherformerJapanesesoldier。〔3〕
　　ThekillingandrapinginNanjingevensickenedJohnRabe，theleaderoftheGermanNazipartyintheareaandheadoftheInternationalSafetyZoneinNanking。WhenhefailedtopersuadeJapanesemilitaryauthoritiestostopthemassacre，Rabebegantoroamthecity，tryingtopreventtheatrocitieshimself。Hdgoanywhererapingwastakingplace。Withonlyhisstatusasanofficialofanalliednation，hewouldchaseJapanesesoldiersawayfromtheirpreyandononeoccasionevenbodilyliftedaJapanesesoldieroffayounggirl。
　　Rsdiarywaspublicizedonlyin2000。〔4〕TheJapanesewartimemedia，however，skillingrecordsnearNanking。Inoneofthemostnotorious，twoJapanesesublieutenants，MukaiToshiakiandNodaTakeshi，wentonseparatebeheadingspreesnearNanjingtoseewhocouldkill100menfirst。TheJapanAdvertiserinTokyorantheirpictureundertheboldheadline，ContesttoKill100ChinesewithSwordExtendedWhenBothFightersExceedMarkMukaiScores106andNoda105。〔5〕
　　Foryearsafterthewar，JapaninsistedthatitsatrocitiesinCwartimeattritionandthereforedifferentfromtheHolocaustinEurope。Thismaybetrue。WhiletheSSofEuropeanJewswassystematicallydoneforefficiency，thekillingsofChinesebytheJapanesesoldierswereapparentlyforfun。Weactuallytreatedthemmorelikethingsthanpeople，KenYuasa，aJapanesemilitarydoctor（194245），recentlystated。〔6〕
　　Inanothercategory，theGwartimeexcessivenesswassomewhatbalancedbyitsrestraintnottousechemicalandbiologicalweaponsagainsttheAlliesforfearofretaliation。Therewere，nonetheless，nosuchrestraintsfortheJapanese，whosesystematicchemicalandbiologicalwarfareinChinakilledhundredsofthousandsofChineseduringthewar。Atthepeakofitsproduction，Unit731wasabletoproduce600kilogramsofanthraxpermonth。Arecentstudytotalsat270，000thevictimsofJapanesechemicalandbiologicalwarfareinChina。〔7〕Todate，theChinesepeoplearestilllivingwith200，000piecesofchemicalweaponshurriedlyburiedalloverChinabeforeJssurrender。TheiroccasionalleakingandexplosionscontinuetoinjureandkillpeopleinChina。〔8〕
　　InAsia，thereisalsothecomfortwomenissue。Thesystem，whichforcedsome200，000youngwomenintotheJapanesewartimemilitarybrothelsalloverAsia，wasputinplaceafterthe1937RapeofNankingwhentherandomrapingspreebyJapanesesoldiersalarmedeventheJapanesemilitaryhighcommand。ForallthecrimestheGermanscommittedinEurope，therewassimplynosuchequivalentforthesystematicenslavingofhundredsofthousandsofyoungwomen。Despiteallthesufferingsandhumiliationsofthoseyoungwomen，
　　onemaywellaskthequestion，ascomfortwomenwhensoldiersoftheJapaneseImperialArmywereroamingalloverAsia？Thishypotheticalquestionmayneverbeanswered。
　　Foralltheseatrocitiesbetween1931and1945，Japanesedocuments，publicationsandofficialpronouncementsusuallydescribedJswaronCManchurianI，MarcoPoloBridgeIncident，NanjingIncident，etc，asifJwaronChinaandwithouttheslightesthintthatJapanengineeredthemall。AnotherglossingoverofJswarofaggressionwastodescribetheinvasionasJintoChinaAsia。Theterm，orjustification，seemstomissacrucialdifferencebetweenconsensuallovemakingandviolentraping，。
　　Softerpeaceandhalfjustice
　　Nowarproducesloveaffairsbetweennations，atleastnotimmediatelyafterward。Itisthewaypeaceishandledthatdeterminesthepostwarchemistry。Sixtyyearsafterthewarended，athoroughlyremorsefulandreformedGermanyisable，withdignityandrespect，torejointheEuropeancommunityofnations。Meanwhile，Japanisbarelyonspeakingtermswithitsneighborsovertheissueofhistory。
　　AttheheartofthedifferentfateofthetwoformerAxispowersliesthetwodifferentoccupationpolicies：onemultilateralinGermanyandtheotherunilateralinJapan。AfterGssurrender，thenationwasjointlyoccupiedandadministeredbytheUSanditsEuropeanallies，includingtheformerSovietUnion。Thejointoccupation，sharedresponsibilityandmutualconstraintsensuredamoreconsistentdeNazificationprocess，despitethefactthatGermanywasatthecenteroftheColdWar（194791）。GeneralGeorgePatton，alegendaryWorldWarIIheroandpostwarmilitarygovernorofBavaria，wasfiredbyGeneralDwightEisenhoweraftermakingcommentsthattheNaziswerenothingmorethananormalpoliticalpartyandhispersonaldecisiontoemploysomeformerNaziofficialsforlocaladministration。〔9〕
　　InJapan，however，SCAP（SupremeCommanderfortheAlliedPowers）involvedthealliesinnameonly。Fromthebeginning，MacArthurdecidedforavarietyofreasonstoexemptEmperorHirohitofromanywarguiltandresponsibility。DuringtheTokyoTrials，MacArthurexplicitlyinstructedthattheemperorbetakenoffthelistofwarcriminaltrials，kepthimawayfromtestifyingandlatercoachedwartimeprimeministerGeneralHidekiTojo，sfullcooperation，toshoulderallresponsibilityforthewarandtocasttheemperorasapeacelover。
　　ThetruthisthatHirohitowasbehindoracquiescedineverymajorstrategicandmilitarydecisionoperation：Manchuria（1931），Shanghai（1937），Nanking（1937），PearlHarbor（1941），Unit731，Kamikazesuicidebombings（1944），etc。Tisacheerleaderforthewar。Ateveryturn，theemperoragreedwithhisministersandmilitary，notedarecentdocumentary。WhenthetideofthewarstartedtoturnagainsttheJapanesein1943，risetothechallenge，。HeevenrejectedinFebruary1945apleafromsomeJapaneseofficialstoendthewar，thusopeningthedoorfortheAcarpetbombingofJapanesecitiesamonthlaterandultimatelyHiroshimaandNakasaki。〔10〕
　　Theremaking，ordisinformation，ofHswartimerecordinthepostwaryearswasthoroughandcomplete。Untilhisdeathin1989，theemperorwasrememberedasahelplessfigureheadduringJswarswithChinaandtheUSwhoknewnothingoftheplantobombPearlHarborandhadnopowertostopatrocitiessuchastheRapeofNandwhowasamildmanneredlittlemaninterestedinonlymarinescienceandMickeyMouseinDisneyland。ItwasalmostaHollywoodproduction，commentedColumbiaUniversityhistorianCarolGUS。〔11〕
　　WhentheColdWarstartedin1947，MacArthurradicallyreversedtheUSoccupationpolicywhichnowliesattheheartofJoveritsownhistoricalbehaviorinAthreeDpolicy（democratization，demilitarization，anddecentralizationofJseconomicsystem）tooneofreleasingwartimeleadersandofficersandrearmingJapan。Later，neithertheNationalistgovernmentinTaiwannorthePsRepublicofChinawereinvitedtothe1951SanFranciscoPeaceConference，despitethefactthatChinasufferedthemostandlongestfromtheJapanesemilitarism。TheUS（includingnuclearweapons）towardJapanhavesowntheseedsforthecurrentdisputesbetweenJapananditsneighborsovertheissueofJswartimeaggressioninAsia。
　　ThetwodifferentoccupationpoliciesledtostartlinglydifferentresultswithrespecttothepastinGermanyandJapan。
　　Todate，formerNaziofficershavebeensystematicallychasedaroundtheworldandbroughttojustice。Germanschoolbookshavebeenpurgedofracistreferences，andthemessageinGermanclassroomsisthattheendofthewarwasnotadefeatbuttheliberationofGermanyfromacriminalregime。WhilenoGermanscholarswouldengageinadebateabouthowmanyJewswereactuallykilled，themeredenialoftheHolocaustremainsacriminaloffense。Throughoutthepostwardecades，theGermangovernmentandcompanieshaveprovided，andcontinuetoprovide，financialassistancetohundredsofthousandsofvictimsofNaziGermany。In1970，WestGermanChancellorWillyBrandtfelltohiskneesbeforeamonumenttothevictimsoftheWarsawGhettouprising。Noonerequestedthathedoso：itwastheheavyburdenofGermanguiltthatdraggedthemostpowerfulmaninGermanytotheground。〔12〕
　　Japanisstillapologizingtoday。Nobody，however，seemstobelistening。NorareanyofJsneighborswillingtobelieveJ，whichisusuallyfollowedbymorerhetoricandactionsbysomehighlevelofficialstobeautifyandwhitewashJshistoryofaggression。Sincethe1980s，theJshistorytextbooksinordertominimizeitsresponsibilityandmaximizeitsownsuffering。Theresult？AlmostallJapaneseundertheageof50knowthatatomicbombsweredroppedonHiroshimaandNagasakibuthavelittleideaofwhythebombsfellonJapan。
　　Attheonsetofthe21stcentury，allofthesedevelopmentsinJtheoverwhelmingrightturnintheJapanesepoliticalandsocialenvironment。Only10yearsago，atthe50thanniversaryofthewar，thepossibilityofJsacquiringnucleararmsandrevisingitsofficialrenunciationofwarwasunthinkable。Nowadays，bothareeitherinactiveconsiderationorpreparation。Inthe1990s，JapanesepoliticiansstillkeptalowprofilefortheirvisitstoYasukuni，wherenumerousJapanesewarcriminalsareenshrined。Inthenewcentury，lawmakersandprimeministersopenlyrushtovisittheshrine，mostintheirofficialcapacity。Forthe60thanniversary，thetwolargestconservativenewspapers，theYomiuriShimbunandtheSankeiShimbun，aresponsoringa200，000personvisittoYasukuni。OnAugust2，theJapaneseparliamentpassedaresolutionthatplaysdownJsmilitaristpast，，whichwereputintoasimilarresolution10yearsearlier。Onthesameday，theJapanesecabinetpassedthe2005DefenseWhitePaperzeroinginthetremendousgrowthinChinesemilitarypower，andrightwingFusoshaPublishingIncputschooltextbooksonsale。
　　JsmostsolemnHiroshimaday（August6）。Althoughthecommemorationwentthroughtheusualrituals，theunmistakablenationalimpulsewastoshedJspostwarpacifism，goaheadwithconstitutionalrevision（removeorreinterpretArticle9）andtoywiththeideaofacquiringnuclearweapons。Inabroadsense，thesymbolismofHiroshimaisnolongerviewedasimportantorevendesirableforJapannow。AneditorialintheYomiuriSandtourgethatJ。Indeed，thetoneandtrendinJanniversaries。〔13〕Intheirplace，politiciansandthegeneralpublicareembracinganotheranniversary：thecentennialcelebrationofJsvictoryinthe190405RussoJapaneseWar。AtthattimeJsspiritwasverystrongbutitwentdownafterWorldWarII，formerprimeministerYasuhiroNakasonetoldacrowdatTokyoBayinMay。WeshouldrememberJsspiritatthattimeandweshouldbuildanewJapan，heurged。DefenseAgencydirectorgeneralYoshinoriOhavethenation，especiallytheyounggenerationwhowillleadthefutureofJapan，realizetheimportanceoflovinganddefendingourcountryandthustomakeacontributiontothe。。。。〔14〕Bothofficials，however，forgotthatthewarwasfoughtinChinaandKoreawithtremendousdamagestothelocalpeoples。
　　Thus，onthe60thanniversaryoftheendofthewar，Japanremainsunmoved，unrepentantandreluctanttofacethehistoricalfactthatitinvaded，occupiedandbrutalizeditsneighborstoanextentthatnoWesternimperialistpowershadeverdone。ManyinAsiastillwonderhowandwhysomanyA，acommonjustificationforJapaneseactionsbothduringthewarandnow。
　　TheriseofAsiannationalism
　　TherewasageneralriseofnationalistfeelingacrossEastAsiaduringmuchof2005whentheregionandtheworldwerecommemoratingthe60thanniversaryoftheendofWorldWarII。
　　MuchofthisoriginatedinsideJapanwherepoliticaleliteshaveconsistentlywhitewashedhistory。Asaresult，antiJapansentimentandactivitiesescalatedinChina，SouthKoreaandotherAsiannations。Ironically，themoreAsiannationshaveexpressedtheiroppositiontoJsefforttowhitewashhistory，themorerevisionistJapanhasbecome。Inthemidstofalltheseissuesoverhistoryanditsinterpretations，territorialdisputesintheregionarealsogrowing。TheseincludeJapanChinadisputesovertheDiaoyuSenkakuIslandsanddemarcationoftheExclusiveEconomicZone（EEZ）intheEastChinaSJapanSouthKoreaovertheTokdoTakeshimaIJapanRussiaovertheSouthernKNorthernTandtoalesserdegreeJapanTaiwanovertheDiaoyuislands。AllthisistakingplaceagainstabackdropofthestrengtheningUSJapanalliance。InFebruary，atthe22conferenceinWashington，JapanagreedforthefirsttimetoextenditsgeographicmilitaryprotectiontoTaiwan。
　　AsallthesethornyissuesofhistoryandterritorybetweenJapananditsneighborsareheatingup，TokyohasalsolaunchedadeterminedefforttoacquireapermanentUNSecurityCouncilseat。WhilenothingiswrongwithJ，thetimingandmannersimplydonotworkandhaveledtoanotherviciouscycleofmutualmisperceptionandresentmentamongEastAsiannations。ThusthemoreJapanstrugglestogetitselfontotheUNSecurityCouncil，thestrongertheefforttoavertitintheregion，leadingtostillmoreresentmentinsideJapanagainstitsneighbors。
　　WhydoesJapanpaysolittleattentiontoAsianopinions？HowcomesomanyJapanesepolicies，domesticandforeign，appearcalculatedtooffenditsneighbors，preciselywhenJapanneedstheregionforitsbidfortheSecurityCstate？IsAsianolongerimportantforJapan，thesecondlargesteconomywiththefourthlargestmilitaryspendingintheworld？HowfarwillJapantravelalongthistrajectoryofallyingitselfwiththedistantUSwhilebeingnastywithneighbors？WhenwillJitsattentiontoAsia，forwhatpurpose，andbywhatmeans？ThelasttimeJintotheAsiancontinentasamodernizedandWstate，itbeganwiththe189495warwithChina。Ishistoryreturningtothestartingpointofacentennialcycle？
　　Thesequestions，amongothers，aredifficulttoanswerduetothevastlydifferentinternationalandregionalenvironment。AglimpseintotheJapanesesenseofidentity，however，mayoffersomecluesregardinghowandwhyJapanpursuescertainpolicies。BehindJsextraordinaryrisetomodernizeandWesternizeisakeyissueofJsmixedandtwistednationalidentity。Inthe19thcentury，theopeningofJapanbyUSCommodoreMatthewPerryforeverchangedJsperceptionofandpoliciestowardChina。TCentralK，whichusedtobeausefulifnotsuperiorneighborforthepurposeofculturalandcommercialexchange，wasnowtobedefied，defeatedanddismemberedfortheprideandprosperityoftheJapanesenation。AndChinahappenedtobesucheasypreyaftertheOpiumWar（183943）。JsmilitaryvictoriesagainstChinaandothersfurthereditsselfconfidenceandsenseofracialsuperiority，whichatleastpartiallyexplainstheviolentbehaviorofJapanesesoldiersinAsiaduringWorldWarIIanditsreluctanceandrefusaltoapologizetoAsiannationsregardingitswartimeatrocities。
　　Attheendofthe20thcentury，JfromAsia。AccordingtoJapanesepoliticalscientistSichiKitaoka，JacountrythatsitsontheoutskirtsofWesterncivilizationbutcontinuestothriveasanindependentcivilizationnotcompletelyoverwhelmedbyWesternculture。〔15〕NowheredoesthisstatementofferanyexplicitidearegardingwhereJapanislocatedinboththephysicalandculturalworlds。Theonlymessagefromthequoteisoneofintangibilityrangingfromabstractiontoemptiness。AsiasimplydoesnotexistaccordingtothisJapanesescholar。Westernnations，particularlytheUnitedStates，arealsocontributingtoJsidentitycrisis。InhisfamoustreatiseTheClashofCivilizations，SamuelHuntingtonsinglesoutJ，alongwiththeWest，Islam，Confucian，Hindu，SlavicOrthodox，LatinAmerica，andAfrica。ThespecialtreatmentofJapanmakeslittlesensewhenthewholeofAfricaisdefinedasaseparatecivilizationdespitethenumerousreligiousandethnicgroupingsthere。〔16〕OnemayunderstandJsspecialplaceinthemindsofAmericansbasedonAsperceptionofJapanoverthepast100yearsasafavoritepupilofmodernizationandWesternization，ofthePacificWar。
　　EvenwithitsobsessionforWesternizationattheexpenseofitsAsianidentity，JWtojoin：theEmoresecularized，liberalandpacifistversionorAsmoreconservative，religious，andfromtimetotime，moremilitaristicone？TheAmericanlegacies，however，arebynomeansfixed。TheUSitselfisdeeplydividedinitssocietyandpoliticsoverhowtorelatetotherestoftheworld。JselitewoulddowelltorememberthatitwastheUnitedStatesthatforcedJapantoadoptapacifistforeignpolicyformuchofthe20thcentury，whichhassofarbenefitedbothnationsaswellastheworld。
　　Somemodestproposals
　　RWAJapanchoosestoidentifywith，theworldisirreversiblymovingintothe21stcentury，inwhichdistinctionsamongvictims，victors，andvanquishedofthewarwillcometosignifylessandlessintherealworld。
　　Whathappenedinthepastcannotbechanged，thoughithasbeenconstantlyreinterpreted。Forthesakeofthefuture，Japanreallyneedstofaceitsownpastwhileunderstandingthatforgivenesscannotbedemandedorevenexpectedbutmustbeearnedwithheartfeltremorseandconcretestepstowardreconciliation。Jonitspastshouldalsomovebeyondanobsessionwithwhathappenedandlookatwhythingshappened。ThisshouldbedonewithoutblamingtheAmericansfordroppingatomicbombsoraccusingothernationsthattheirgovernmentsaresaidtohavekilledmoreoftheirowninthepast。ThesearetotallydifferentthingsfromwhatJapandidinAsiainWorldWarII。Ataminimum，Americansdidnotdroptheatomicbombswithoutreason。AndCintoTokyo。
　　Beyondhistory，Japanshouldtrytofindawaytolivewithitsneighbors，Witperceivesitselftobe。TherearelimitstohowmuchJapancancontinuetoignoreorgettoughwithitsneighborsinEastAsia。Initslongterminteractionswithneighbors，Jstatedoesnotonlyimplytherighttouseforcebutalsotheabilityandwillingnesstomakepeaceandreachacompromisewithothers，asGermanyhasdoneinthepast60years。ThefrequentshrinevisitsbyJsrulingpoliticalelitearejustifiedwithanddefendedbyaclaimofexercisingdemocracy。Democracywithoutmoderationandastablemiddleground，however，isperhapsdangerousforbothitselfandothers，aswerethecasesoftheWeimarRepublicinGermanyandJsTaishodemocracyinthe1920s。〔17〕Bothhadinfrastructurestypicalofaparliamentarydemocracy。Neither，however，survivedthetidalwavesofextremenationalism，militarismandracisminthe1930s。
　　WhenUSpresidentWoodrowWilsondeclaredhisintentiontomaketheworldsafefordemocraciesatVersailles，heobviouslyfailedtoseetheothersideofthecoin，thatis，anequallyimportanttaskwastomakedemocracysafefortheworld。Andtherestishistory。SixtyyearsaftertheatomicbombsdroppedonJapan，whydoJdemocracy，whoserulingeliteincreasinglyinsiststhatnothingwaswrongwithwhatJapandidinthefirsthalfofthelastcenturyexceptJapanwasdefeated？Butifnothingwaswrongthen，willJapandoitagain？Inthatsense，whatWilsonfailedtoseein1919andMacArthurfailedtodoin1952（endofUSoccupationofJapan）continuetohauntEastAsia，aswellastheUSinthe21stcentury。
　　Regardlessofwhatitdidinthepast，theUnitedStatesisperhapstheonlynationintheworldthatJapanmaystilllistentoonthesubjectofhistory。Inabroadersense，theUSasthesolesuperpoweroftheworldshouldnotonlyexerciseitsmilitarypowerandpoliticalinfluence，butalsostriveformoralauthorityandethicalrestraintsoveritselfandothers。Inthisregard，ademocracyshouldbeheldtohigher，notlower，moralstandardsregardingbothpastandpresentissues。Thisisparticularlyimperativeintheeraofweaponsofmassdestruction。TherearethereforelimitstohowfarWashingtonshouldplayoffoneAsianpoweragainsttheotherattheexpenseofajustinternationalsystem。AmorebalancedapproachtoBeijingandTokyoisinthelongterminterestsofWashington，aswellasoftheregionandtheworld。
　　Notes
　　〔1〕NewYorkTimes，June24，1941，p。7。
　　〔2〕IrisChang，TheRapeofNanking：TheForgottenHolocaustofWorldWarII（PenguinBooks，1997）。
　　〔3〕CitedfromHirohito，EmperorofWar，DiscoveryChannel，August6，2005。
　　〔4〕JohnRabe，TheGoodManofNanking：TheDiariesofJohnRabe（Vintage，2000）。
　　〔5〕IrisChang，TheRapeofNanking：TheForgottenHolocaustofWorldWarII（PenguinBooks，1997）。
　　〔6〕Hirohito，EmperorofWar，DiscoveryChannel，August6，2005。
　　〔7〕Xinhua，Zhuanjia：qinhuarijunxijunzhanzhishaodanhaiyu27wanzhongguoren〔Experts：atleast270，000ChinesefellvictimstobiologicalwarfarebytheinvadingJapaneseforces〕，
　　August9，2005，http：politics。people。com。cnGB102636033391。html。
　　〔8〕FormoreinformationregardingJschemicalandbiologicalwarfareinChina，seeSheldonH。Harris，FactoriesofDeath：JapaneseBiologicalWarfare，193245andtheAmericanCoverUp，revisededition（Routledge，2001）；DanielBarenblatt，APlagueuponHumanity：TheSecretGenocideofAxisJsGermWarfareOperation（HarperCollins，2004）；HalGold，Unit731Testimony（TuttlePublishing，2004）。
　　〔9〕Seewww。historylearningsite。co。ukgeorgepatton。htm。
　　〔10〕Hirohito，EmperorofWar，DiscoveryChannel，August6，2005。
　　〔11〕Hirohito，EmperorofWar，DiscoveryChannel，August6，2005。AlsoseeHerbertBix，HirohitoandtheMakingofModernJapan（HarperCollinsPublishers，2000）。
　　〔12〕ForasharpcomparisonofthepostwarpoliciesinGermanyandJapan，seeForeignReport，Japan，GermanyandWarGuilt，JsDefenseWeekly，June15，2005，Internetversion。
　　〔13〕NorimitsuOnishi，MourningPacifisminHiroshima，NewYorkTimes，August8，2005；JoichiIto，NagasakiandHiroshima：AnAnniversaryToForget，NewYorkTimes，August8，2005；KazuoOgoura，DtJudgeJapanOnlybyItsPast，InternationalHeraldTribune，July22，2005。
　　〔14〕MieKohiyama，JapaneseUrgedToSeizeSpiritofVictoryOverRussiaonCentennial，AgenceFrancePresse（AFP），May27，2005。
　　〔15〕ItoKichi，NishioKanji，KitaokaSichi，JsIdentity：NeithertheWestnortheEast（Tokyo：TheJapanForumonInternationalRelations，Inc。，February1999），p。1。ExcerptedfromtheJapaneseversion，NihonnoAidentiti：SeiyouDemoNai，TouyouDemoNai（Tokyo：ForestoShuppan，1999）。CitedinMichaelJ。Green，JsReluctantRealism：ForeignPolicyChallengesinanEraofUncertainPower（Palgrave，2003），p。27。
　　〔16〕ForeignAffairs，Vol。72，No。7（Summer1993）。
　　〔17〕Fordebatesregardingthemoreaggressivebehaviorofcertaindemocracies，seeFareedZakaria，TheRiseofIlliberalDemocracy，ForeignAffairs（Nov。Dec。1997）；JackL。Snyder，FromVotingtoViolence：DemocratizationandNationalistConflict（W。W。NCompany，2000）。
　　《亚洲时报在线》〔AsiaTimesOnline〕，2005年8月16日首发。