浅谈英语委婉语的分类构成方式及社会功能

　　〔Abstract〕AsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage，Englisheuphemismshaveexistedforalongtime。Theappearanceofeverything，includingeuphemism，hasitsreasons。TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismshasacloserelationwithlanguagetaboosandreligion。SinceEnglisheuphemismsplayanimportantroleinsocialcommunication，theyworthcarefulandthoroughstudy。Thispaperwillmainlydealwiththeformation，classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms。
　　VariousmethodshavebeenusedtoformEnglisheuphemisms，includingphoneticdevices，spellingdevices，vocabularydevices，grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices。
　　ThepaperalsotriestoclassifyEnglisheuphemismsaccordingtothecontent。Englisheuphemismsarealmostemployedinallfieldsoflifesuchasinthefieldofdailylife，inthefieldofeducation，inthefieldoflaw，inthefieldofpolitics，andinthefieldofcommerceandindustry。
　　FromthedaytheycameintobEing，Englisheuphemismsplaytheroleofsociallubricator。Withoutthem，theworldwillbefullofconflictsandthesocialorderwillbeinchaos。ThefunctionofEnglisheuphemismsispersified。Besidesevasion，Englisheuphemismsnowarealsousedforpoliteness，eleganceanddisguise。
　　〔KeyWords〕Englisheuphemism；formation；classification；socialfunction
　　【摘要】委婉语是人类语言中的一种普遍现象，其存在的历史相当悠久。任何事物的出现总有其原因，委婉语当然也不例外。委婉语的出现是与语言禁忌息息相关的。英语委婉语在交际中起着十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的学习和研究。本文主要从英语委婉语的构成方式、分类和社会功能来进行阐述。英语委婉语的构成方式多种多样包括语音手段、语法手段、修辞手段等。论文还试图根据英语委婉语的内容对其应用范围进行归类。英语委婉语涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉语又有教育和法律委婉语以及政治委婉语与商业和工业领域委婉语。从其诞生之日起，英语委婉语就肩负着社会润滑剂这项重任。可以预见如果没有委婉语人际交往中将会增加许多摩擦和矛盾。英语委婉语具有多样化的功能。除了避讳，它还具有礼貌、求雅、掩饰等功能。
　　【关键字】英语委婉语；构成方式；分类；社会功能
　　1。Introduction
　　Euphemismshaveexistedforalongtime。ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordEuphemia。Theprefixeumeansgood，thestemphememeansspeechorsaying。Manypeoplehavedefinedeuphemism。Herearesomeofthedefinitions。
　　（1）（exampleofthe）useofpleasant，mildorindirectwordsorphasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones。〔1〕
　　（2）apolitewordorexpressionthatyouuseinsteadofamoredirectonetoavoidshockingorupsettingsomeone。〔2〕
　　（3）alessdirectwordusedinsteadofonethatisharshorbluntwhenreferringtosomethingunpleasantorembarrassing。〔3〕
　　（4）Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone；Expressionthussubstituted。〔4〕
　　（5）apolitewordorexpressionthatpeopleusetotalkaboutsomethingunpleasantorembarrassing，suchasdeathandsex。〔5〕
　　（6）Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression，inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface：EItherone’sownfaceor，throughgivingoffence，thatoftheaudience，orofsomethirdparty。〔6〕
　　Justastheabovedefinitionsstate，someharsh，blunt，unpleasantoroffensivethingsinlifeshouldnotbestateddirectlyandtruthfullyincertainoccasions。Underthesecircumstances，somebettersoundingnamesshouldbeused。Euphemismisapartofhumanlanguageaswellasapsychologicalandculturalphenomenonofdifferentnations。TheusageofEnglisheuphemismreflectsethicsandbehavioralcodeofpeopleinEnglishspeakingcountries。Fromthedayitcameintobeing，euphemismfunctionsasthelubricatorofcommunication。Thusitenablespeopletoliveinharmonyandmakesconversationssmoothandsuccessful。
　　Thefollowingpartsholdadiscussionontheorigin，formation，classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms。
　　2。TheoriginofEnglisheuphemisms
　　Euphemismisthelinguisticreflectionofsocialpsychologyandaproductofsocialandculturalenvironment。〔7〕Inwesternnations，theusageofeuphemismsinearlytimesoriginatedfromreligionoradmiresanddreadofgods。〔8〕Itsearlieremergencehadacloserelationtolanguagetaboosandreligion。
　　Inancientsociety，asthelevelofproductivityandsciencewasverylow，peoplefailedtoexplaintheessenceofsomenaturalphenomenasuchaslighteningandthunder。Theycametobelievethatthereweresomesupernaturalpowers，ortheexistenceofdevilsandgodsthatcontrolledtheirlivesandeventhewholeworld。Theydarednottomentionthenamesofthedevilsandgodsdirectly，justastheidiomgoesSpeakofthedevilandheappears。Thus，languagetabooscameintobeing。Tofindasolutiontothisproblem，peopleusedothernamesthatis，euphemismstosubstitutethenamesofthosethingstheyfearedincircumstancesthattheyhadtospeakofthem。Becauseoftheusageofeuphemisms，peoplefeltthattheyweresomewhatdistantfromwhattheywereafraidofandtheirsafety，happiness，healthandgoodluckwereguaranteed。Thoughitisaratheroldreligiouscustom，itstillexertsastronginfluenceonmodernwesternnations。
　　Asweallknow，themajorityofthepopulationofEnglishspeakingcountriesbelievesinGodconsciouslyorunconsciously，andtheythinkthatGodexistseverywhereandhasunlimitedpower。WordsrelatedtoGodandreligioncanonlybeusedinreligiousceremonies。SincethenameofGodisregardedastheavatarofGoditself，peopleusuallyusetheLordtoreplaceit。Besides，JesusiseuphemizedasGee，jeepers，jiminy，CricketorCriminet；andthedeuce，thedickensorOldNicksubstitutestheDevil。
　　3。TheformationofEnglisheuphemisms
　　VariousdevicesareemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms。
　　3。1Phoneticdevices
　　PhoneticdistortionisacommonmeanstoformEnglisheuphemism。Forexample，PeopleuseGad，Goodness，Gosh，andGollytoreplaceGodandusecripestoreplaceChristinordertoshowrespect。Assonanceisanotherimportantmeanstoformeuphemisms。Forexample，‘acoffinshop’iseuphemizedas‘acoffeeshop’，for‘coffin’and‘coffee’havesimilarityinsound。〔9〕RhymingslangisalsoemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms。Slangisveryinformalandhaslocalcolor。Itwasoriginallyusedbyworkingpeople。Now，someslangwordshavebeenacceptedinStandardEnglishandusedaseuphemisms。Forexample，Bristolcitiesisforbreasts；graspandgruntisrhymingslangforcuntandtealeafisforthief。
　　3。2Spellingdevices
　　3。2。1Abbreviations
　　Someeuphemismsareabbreviations。Forexample，VDisforvenerealdisease；BOisforbodyodor；BMsubstitutesbowelmovement；WCsubstituteswatercloset；ODreplacestotakeanoverdose，etc。
　　3。2。2Reinterpretationofinitials
　　ReinterpretationofinitialsisalsousedtoformEnglisheuphemisms。Forexample，hotandcoldisaroundaboutexpressionforheroinandcocaine。hotandheroinhavethesameinitialhandcoldandcocainehavethesameinitialc，buthotandcoldsoundslessaccurateandindirect。
　　3。3vocabularydevices
　　3。3。1Loanwords
　　Borrowingistheuseofloanwordsinordertoavoidtaboos。Itisthoughtthatloanwordshavefewnegativemeaningandsensitiveassociations，sothattheysoundmoreneutralandpleasant。〔10〕
　　Hereisalistofdirectexpressionsandtheirrespectiveeuphemisms。
　　EnglishFrenchLatin
　　smellscent
　　stinkodor
　　fatrotund
　　sickillindisposed
　　lieprevaricate
　　spitexpectorate
　　sweatperspire〔11〕
　　Asweallknow，in43A。D。RomanEmpireconqueredEnglandandbroughtLatintoEnglandandLatinbecameofficiallanguageinEngland。AftertheNormanConquestin1066，FrenchbecamethegovernmentallanguageinEngland。ButFrenchandLatinwereonlyspokenbytheupperclasses，andamongthelowclassesEnglishwasspoken。Theupperclassesheldtheviewthatwordsusedbythemselvesweresuperiortothoseusedbythelowclasses。SotheyusedFrenchorLatinwordstoreplaceunpleasantEnglishwords。LaterpeopleacceptedtheviewthatFrenchandLatinwordsaremoreeuphemisticthanEnglishwords。
　　3。3。2Usingupliftingwords
　　UpliftingwordscanmakeonefeelhappierormorehopefulsotheyareusedquitefrequentlyinmodernEnglishasanimportantmeanstoeuphemizethingsrelatedtothehumblesocialclass。Themainpurposeofusingtheseeuphemismsistomakemenialjobssounddecent。Forexample，peoplereplacewaitersorwaitressesbythediningroomattendants，landscapeworkerbylandscapearchitect，garbagemanbysanitaryengineer，andsubstitutebutcherwithmeattechnologist。Generallyspeaking，informingeuphemismtheruleofusingwordsthatareeasyontheearsisobservedforthepurposeofconsolation。Throughusingupliftingwords，theembarrassingfactsareembellishedandnolongerunpleasant。
　　33。3Usingvaguewordsorexpressions
　　Inmodernwesterncountries，vaguewordsorexpressionsareusedinalmostallthefields。Ifaneighboringgirlhasachildbeforemarriage，peoplewillcommentlikethis：‘Shehasanaccident。’Theword‘accident’isveryvague。Ifapersoncameacrossadisasteranddied，peoplewillalsouse‘accident’todescribehissituation。Theymaysay：‘Hehasmetwithanaccident。’〔12〕Inschoolastudentmaysaytoateacher：Sorry！Ihavetodomybusinesswhenhewantstogotothewashingroom。Besides，amanofbadtasteiscalledamanofdoubtfultaste；andhomosexualisreplacedbyqueer。Itisnowonderthateuphemismisnamedweaselwords。〔13〕
　　3。3。4Usingcountrynames
　　Namesofsomecountriesareusedtosubstituteuncomfortablethings。Forexample，Dutchcouragereplacesweakcourage，thatis，couragethatcomesfromdrinkingalcohol；andDutchuncleisforunpleasantrelative。WeallknowthattherewasawarbetweenBritainandDutchin17thcentury。Fromthenon，hatredexistedamongpeopleinthesetwonations。AndEnglishmenusedeverychancetomakejokeofDutch。BesidesDutch，FranceisalsousedtoformeuphemismslikeFrenchnovelsforpornnovelsandFrenchlettersforcondom。AndpeopleuseFrenchdevicesmethodsorsimplyFrenchisetoreplacemethodsofbirthcontrol。PeopleinBritainbanterFrenchbecausetheywereonceruledbyit。
　　3。4Grammaticaldevices
　　Moreandmorelinguistsbecometonoticeeuphemismsformedthroughgrammaticaldevices。Sucheuphemismsareusedbyspeakerswithacertainpurpose。Onlythroughthecontext，canlistenersfigureoutspeakers’specialintention。
　　3。4。1Usingthepasttense
　　InwrittenEnglishthepasttenseismostlyusedtoexpressanactionorafacthappenedinacertainpointoftimeinthepast。ButinoralEnglish，thepasttensecanreplacethepresenttensetomakethemeaningofthesentencessoundsmorepoliteandmild。
　　（1）Doyouwantmetohelpyou？
　　（2）Didyouwantmetohelpyou？
　　（3）Iwonderifyoucandomeafavor。
　　（4）Iwonderedifyoucoulddomeafavor。
　　（5）Wouldn’titbebetterforustostartoffalittleearliertomorrow？
　　（6）ThisissomethingIshouldadviseyounottodo。
　　Byusingthepasttenseofmodelauxiliaryverbs，theabovesentencesputforwardapoliteproposalinsteadofaharshone。
　　3。4。2Usingthesubjunctivemood
　　ThesubjunctivemoodinEnglishismainlyusedtoexpressdoubt，wishes，orpossibility。WhenusedinspokenEnglish，onecanachieveabettercommunicationeffectthanwithindicativemoodorimperativemood。Herearesomeexamples：
　　（7）IfIwereyou，Iwouldnotgothere。
　　（8）Ifhebefoundguilty，hismembershipwouldbesuspended。
　　（9）Itisessentialthatherecognizehisfault。
　　3。4。3Usingthepassivevoice
　　InEnglish，thepassivevoiceisusedtoavoidmentioningthedoer，especiallywhenexpressingcriticism。Herearetwoexamples：
　　（10）Itisgenerallyconsiderednotacceptabletoactthatway。
　　（1
　　1）Thisbookwasnotwellwritten。
　　Insentence
　　（10），thepassivevoiceistactfullyusednottoindicatewhoactsthatway。Insentence
　　（1
　　1），thespeakerdoesnotmentionwhoisthewriterinordernottohurtthepersonconcerned。
　　3。4。4Usingparentheses
　　Parenthesesarealsousedtoformeuphemisms。Andaparenthesiscanbeaword，aphraseorasentence，suchas，Ithink，Iguess，I’mafraid，Isuppose，Iwonder，itseems，anditissaid。Theyareusedtomakeastatementlessdirectorlessstrong。Herearesomeexamples：
　　（1
　　2）Theman，itseems，istheonewholivesnextdoortoTim。
　　（1
　　3）This，Ithink，isaverygoodwaytoimproveyourEnglishstudy。
　　WithitseemsandIthinkthetwosentencessoundmoremodestandlessrighteous。
　　3。4。5Usingplease
　　Outofkindnessandpoliteness，thewordpleaseisusedasaeuphemisticdevice。Examples：
　　（1
　　4）Nophotos，please。
　　（1
　　5）Closethedoor，please。
　　（1
　　6）Children，please！Iamtryingtowork。
　　Insentence
　　（1
　　4），pleaseisemployedonasigntosaythatsomethingisnotallowedpolitely。Sentence
　　（1
　　5）usespleaseasapolitewayofaskingsomebodytodosomething。Sentence
　　（1
　　6）employspleaseasamildcriticism，toasksomebodytostopbehavingbadly。
　　3。4。6Usingtagquestions
　　Aphrasesuchasisn’tit？，won’tit，ordoesn’tsheisaddedtotheendofasentencetomakeitaquestionortoaskyoutoagreewiththeabovestatementpolitely。Examples：
　　（1
　　7）Let’sgofishingthisafternoon，shallwe？
　　（1
　　8）Turnonthelightforme，willyou？
　　3。5Rhetoricaldevices
　　Someeuphemismsareinventedbyrhetoricalmeansasfollows。
　　3。5。1Usingmetaphor
　　InEnglish，manyeuphemismsthemselvesarevividandpopularmetaphors，soitisnecessarytofindoutwhatmetaphormeans。Ametaphoremploysawordoraphrasetoindicatesomethingdifferentfromtheliteralmeaning。Peopleseldomsayhediedbuthewenttosleepforeverorhewenttohislonghome。Here，gotosleepforeverandgotoone’slonghomearebothmetaphorsandeuphemisms。Moreexamplesare：
　　（1
　　9）HeisHamlet。
　　（20）Hisplaniscastleintheair。
　　（2
　　1）JohniscarryingcoalstoNewcastle。
　　（2
　　2）thereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw，whichthoughconductedbyrules，doesnotinterferetoowithagentleman’sprivateaffairs。〔14〕
　　Insentence
　　（2
　　2），tobeaguestofthelawmeanstobeinprison，buttheformerisapleasantsubstitution。Soapywouldratherspendhiswintersinprisonthangetsomehelpfromcharityorganizations，forifhewantstogethelpfromcharities，hisprivateaffairswillbeinterfered。
　　3。5。2Usingunderstatement
　　Forthesakeofpolitenessandpleasantness，peopleoftenuseanotherformationcalledunderstatement，which，isnottostatesomethingfullyoradequately。Understatement，asthewordsuggests，isastatementthatisnotstrongenoughtoexpresshowgood，bad，impressiveetcsomethingreallyis。〔15〕Understatementachievesitseffectofemphasizingafactbydeliberatelyunderstatingit。〔16〕
　　Understatementisusuallypidedintolitotesandmeiosis。Litotesisunderstatementbyusinganegativestatementinsteadofapositiveone〔17〕。Examples：
　　（2
　　3）Sheisveryugly。Sheisnotparticularlygoodlooking。
　　（2
　　4）Hewasquiterich。Hewasamanofnomeanwealth。
　　Insentence
　　（2
　　3），notparticularlygoodlookingismoreneutralandvaguethanugly，sotheemploymentofthiseuphemismsuccessfullyavoidsannoyingthepersonconcerned。Sentence
　　（2
　　4）hassomethingtodowithpersonalaffairs。Westernersdon’tlikeotherstotalkabouttheirprivateaffairs。Wealthbelongstoone’sprivacy，soitismorepolitetousearoundaboutwaytotalkaboutitwhenyouhaveto。
　　Meiosisismerelyunderstatementwithouttheuseofnegatives〔18〕。Examples：
　　（2
　　5）Herdaughterisinprison。Herdaughterlivesunderthegovernment’sexpense。
　　（2
　　6）Ican’tpromise。Sorry，thisisinfactmorethanIcanpromise。
　　prisoninsentence
　　（2
　　5）isanunpleasantword。Generalspeaking，peoplearesensitivetothewordprisonifoneisinprison，youhadbetteravoidmentioningprisoninfrontofhisrelatives。Sentence
　　（2
　　6）isarefusal。Whenyourefusesomeone，indirectwordswillgetabetterresult，fortheywillnotmakehimloseface。
　　Byusingunderstatements，thespeakersdonotseemtobesocrueltootherswhomtheyspeaksomethingupsettingto。
　　3。5。3Usingmetonymy
　　MetonymyisanotherveryusefulrhetoricalmeanstoformEnglisheuphemisms。Itusesthenameofonethingtosubstitutethatofanother。Byusingit，someunpleasantexpressionscanbeavoided。Metonymycanbefurtherpidedintothefollowing。
　　（）Substitutingthetypicalcharacteristicsofapersonfortheperson
　　Forexample，
　　（2
　　7）Grayhairsshouldberespected。
　　Intheabovesentence，Grayhairsisemployedtoreplaceoldpeople，forgrayhairisoneofthetypicalcharacteristicsofoldpeople。SinceoldisatabooinEnglishspeakingcountriespeopleexpressitwitheuphemisticwords。
　　（）Substitutingthewholeforthepart
　　Forexample，
　　（2
　　8）Shehasagoodchest。
　　Insentence
　　（2
　　8），chestmeansbreast。Peopleconsiderbreastasanungracefulword，sotheyuseroundaboutwaytomentionit。
　　（）Substitutingthetoolsfortheactionorthething
　　Forexample，
　　（2
　　9）DuringtheWorldWarHitlerattendedtocarryfireandswordintoEverypartoftheworld。
　　Insentence
　　（2
　　9），fireandswordhasthesamemeaningwithwar。Inwesterners’eyes，fireisthesymbolofhopeandswordisthesymbolofjustice。Aswarmakespeoplethinkofmisery，theyusuallydon’tmentionitdirectly。Here，fireandswordisusedtocreateasenseofsatire。
　　（30）Sellingcardsisforbidden。
　　cardsinsentence
　　（30）meansdrugs。drugisasensitivewordasithassomethingtodowithcrimeanddecadence，soitisofteneuphemized。Peopleusecardtorefertodrugforthereasonthatdrugdealersputdisposabledrugsintofoldingpostcardsandsendthemtodrugaddicts。
　　（）Substitutingthenameofaplacefortheperson
　　Forexample，
　　（3
　　1）Tomissuccessfulinhiscareerbuthewasabrostal。
　　Brostalintheabovesentencemeansyoungcriminal。BrostalisthenameofalocalityinBritain。Becausethefamousyoungcriminalscenterislocatedthere，peopleusethenameofittoreplaceyoungcriminal。
　　4。CalcificationofEnglisheuphemisms
　　Englisheuphemismsinvolvesinalmosteveryfieldoflife。Thispapertriestoclassifythemaccordingtothecontent。
　　4。1Inthefieldofdailylife
　　4。1。1Aboutoldage
　　Itisnaturalforpeopletoexperienceadult，middleage，oldageanddeath。Buttowesterners，oldagemeansworthlessandtheoldwillbelookeddownuponorevendeserted。Sonooneadmitsthatheisold。Peopledreadaboutoldagesomuchthattheyseethewordoldasataboo。Thus，theytrythEirbesttoborrowotherwordstoexpressit，e。g。：theadvancedinage，themature，thelongerliving，seasonedman，seniorcitizens，etc。Inshort，westernnationshaveseniorcitizensorthelongerlivedbutnooldage。Unemploymentisstillabigsocialprobleminwesterncountries。Itissodreadedthatitalmostmakespeoplebecomeshiveringwhentheythinkofit，particularlyduringperiodsofeconomiccrisis。Andonceyouareoutofwork，povertyistheinevitableresult。Wholikestoliveapoorlife？Thus，unemploymenthasbecomeahottopicinpoliticalcompetition。Nearlyeverycandidatelooksonthelowunemploymentrateasoneofhisorhertrumpstowin。Moreandmorepeoplegetusedtobeconsideratewhentheywanttomentionunemploymentandpoverty。Asaresult，manyvagueexpressionsorwordsarecreatedtoreplacethem。Forexample，whenthebosswantedtodismissJohn，hewaslaidoff，easedoutorgiventhewalkingticketandhebecamealayoffworker。Atfirsthewasoutofpocketandlivedinreducedcircumstances（penniless），thenhelivedindifficulties（indebt），laterhehadnochoicebuttomoveintoasubstandardhousing（slums）。Besides，Thepooristhehavenots，theunderprivilegedorthedisadvantaged。Andtherearenopoorcountriesintheworldfortheyarereplacedbydevelopingnationsoremergingnations。Whentheseeuphemismsareheardfromthepeople，theyareusedtosoftenharshreality，butwhengovernmentsusethem，theyarechangedintodecEIvingwords。
　　4。1。3Aboutmenialjobsandprofessions
　　Therearemanypeoplewhoundertakehumblejobsthatarelookeddownuponbythepublic。Forthesakeofpoliteness，peopleuseupgradingeuphemismstoupliftthesejobsbyname，notbystatus。Examples：
　　（3
　　2）Maryalwaysturnstoherunclewhenthereissomethingwrongwithhershoesforheisashoerebuilder。
　　（3
　　3）Supervisorsarestrictandmeantoworkers。
　　（3
　　4）Themainworkoftreesurgeonsistomakegoodoftrees。
　　（3
　　5）Weneedapipeengineerbecausethepipeinourkitchenisdripping。
　　Intheabovesentences，cobbler，foremen，treetrimmersandplumberarereplacedrespectivelybyshoerebuilder，supervisors，treesurgeonsandpipeengineer。Andhairdresserissubstitutedbybeauticianorhairstylist；floorsweeperisreplacedbycustodianengineer；hiregirlisspokenasdomesticengineer；ratcatcherissubstitutedbypestcontroloperator；washwomanisreplacedbyclothesrefresher，andsoon。Allthesewordsareusedforthesamepurpose：toavoidoffendingpeoplewithhumblejobs。Theusageofoccupationaleuphemismsreflectsasenseofinferiorityaswellasastrivingforbetterthings。
　　4。1。4Aboutmenstruation
　　Thedesiretoescapefromunpleasantfeelingsbringsoutmanyeuphemismsonexcretionofwomen。Menstruationeuphemismisoneofthem。Suchastohaveavisitor；myfriendhascome；andsoon。Alloftheseeuphemismsareusedtoavoidthefeelingofembarrassmentanddistaste。
　　4。2Inthefieldofeducation
　　Teachershavetomakecommentsonstudents。Whentheywanttopointoutshortcomingsorbadbehaviorofstudents，theyoftenuseroundaboutwaysinordernottohurtstudentsandtheirparents。Thefollowingaresomemostlyusedeuphemismsinthisfieldandtheirrealmeanings。
　　（3
　　6）Thestudentisobtuse。Thestudentisabitslowforhisage。Thestudentsseemstobementallyretarded。
　　（3
　　7）Hehasfailed（flunked）amajorcourse。I’msorrytofindhimanunderachieverforamajorsubject。
　　（3
　　8）Thestudentislazy。Thestudentneedstoraisehisambitionabit。I’mafraidthestudenthastoexerthimselfinhisstudy。Heissuretogofarifhecanusehisresourcesfully。He’llgosomewhereifheishighlymotivated。
　　（3
　　9）Thestudentisnoisy。Heneedstodevelopquieterhabitsofcommunication。
　　（40）Thestudentisabully。Heneedshelpinlearningtouseisleadershipqualitiesdemocratically
　　（4
　　1）Helies。Hehasdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualinformation。
　　（4
　　2）Thestudentcheats。Heneedshelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightofothers。
　　（4
　　3）Thestudentmustmendhisway。Heneedstobebroughtbackintothemainstream。〔19〕
　　4。3Inthefieldoflaw
　　Sincecrimesaretabooedinmanysocialsituations，peoplecreatealargenumberofeuphemismstoreplacethem。Hereisalistofcrimesandtheircorrespondingeuphemisms。
　　CrimesEuphemisms
　　crooked，fraudulentfreewheeling
　　thieffivefingers，adip，afork
　　violenceaction
　　murdertakecareof
　　prostitutebrass，daughterofeve
　　heroinBigHarry
　　opiumblackstuff
　　4。4Inthefieldofpolitics
　　Politicsisoneofthefertilefieldsforthegrowthofeuphemisms。Witheuphemisms，politiciansalwaysjustifytheiractionsandbeautifytheharshrealitiesforsomecertainpurposes。Onlywhenthepublicbelievesthatthesocietyundertheirleadhasbecomebetter，cantheirpoliticallifesurvives。Thelistofsuchkindofeuphemismsisendless，e。g。：economiccrisisisreplacedbydepressionorrecession；strikeissaidtobeindustrialaction；aggressionisspokenaspreemptiveaction，policeactionorantiterroristaction；civiliancasualtiesissubstitutedbycollateraldamage；killingofcitizensiseuphemizedaswastingtheenemy；concentrationcampsisreplacedbystrategicvillagesorhamlets；retreatissaidtobestrategicwithdrawal；groundwarisspokenasgroundoperation；etc。Thiskindofeuphemismsisusedtocoverupthetruenatureofsomepoliticalevents，misleadingthepublicwithpleasantandsweetwords。〔20〕
　　4。5Inthefieldofcommerceandindustry
　　Euphemismscanalsobeseenintheareaofcommerceandindustry。Example：
　　（4
　　4）Johnwasoutofgameandhejumpedfromthe20thfloorofabuildingoutofdesperation。
　　（4
　　5）Sheisanegativesaverforshealwaysbuyssomethingexpensivebutunnecessarysoshehastoborrowmoneyfromothersattheendofeachmonth。
　　Intheabovesentences，bankruptandoverspenderaresubstitutedbyoutofgameandnegativesaver。
　　Somecompaniesarenotlargeenoughtobecalledlargecompanies，buttheydon’twanttousefairlylargetodescribethemselvesforthesenseofdignity。Sosubstantialisemployedtoreplacefairlylarge，intheeuphemisticexpressionasubstantialandwellpersifiedgroupcompanies。Inthisfield，smallisregardedasataboowordtoo，sopeopleusemanynicesoundingwordstosubstituteit。InEuropeacompactisequaltoasmallcar。Andasubcompactmeansatypeofverysmallandinexpensivecar。Asitisinexpensive，itisattractivetopeople。Sometimessmallisreplacedbyintimateorlimited。Aseverybodyknows，anintimategatheringisusuallyasmallgathering。cheapisanothertabooword。Peopledon’tliketousethewordcheap。Instead，theyuseitseuphemisms，suchaslowcost，realisticallypriced，oreconomypriced。Inordertoattractcustomers，shopkeepersusepremiumpricedtodescribeexpensive。So，premiumpricedScotchesinfactisthemostexpensiveScotches。
　　5。ThesocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms
　　5。1Forevasion
　　Sincedeathisinevitable，ithasbecomethefearofallhumanbeing。Inearlytime，peopleseldommentioneddeathdirectlybecausetheyweresuperstitiousaboutit。Theybelievedthatdeathwasadevilthatcanhearhuman’svoice。Soifyouspeakofit，itwillappear。Thus，thereweremanyeuphemismsabouttheworddiesuchasbreatheone’slastandjointhemajority。
　　Diseaseisanotherfearofman。Inprimitivesociety，asthelevelofmedicinewasverylow，peoplescarcelysurvivedwhentheygotsick。Tothem，diseasewasasdreadfulasdeath。Sotheydidn’tspeakitdirectlyeither。Inmodernsociety，althoughmanydiseasescanbecured，peoplearestillafraidofthem。Ontheonehand，thepatientsuffersalotfromit；ontheotherhand，theexpenseisaheavyburdentothefamilyespeciallythepoor。Thecommonresultisthatthepatientregainshishealthbutthewholefamilyhastoliveapoorlifeformanyyearsorevenalltheirlives。Thus，peopleusuallyuseeuphemisticwordswhentheymentionthenamesofdisease。Forexample，theBigCreplacescancerandAIDSsubstitutesacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome。
　　InChinesepeople’eyes，westernersarequiteopenminded。Butthisdoesnotmeanthattheytalkaboutallthewordsrelatedtosexfreely。Exceptforsomemedicaltermsinaspecialsituation，theymayuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit〔21〕。Suchas，tohavesexandtomakelove。Wordsaboutthebirtharealsoseldommentioneddirectlybecausetheymakepeoplethinkofsex。Whenawomanispregnant，sheisdescribedastohaveonewatermelononthevine；inaparticularcondition；tohaveoneontheway，etc。
　　5。2Forpoliteness
　　ThePursuitofbeautyisthenatureofhumanbeing。Beautyhelpsonefeelconfidentwhileuglinessmakesonehaveasenseofinferiority。Soitisimpoliteevenoffensivetosaysomeoneisuglydirectly。Whenpeoplewanttoexpresssomeoneisugly，theyusuallysayHeisplainlookingorSheisnotpretty，etc。Withtheimprovementoflivingstandard，moreandmorepeoplehaveaweightproblem。Variousproductsoflosingweightfloodintothemarketforbeingtoofatisnotonlyaproblemofappearancebutalsoaproblemofhealth。Obesitybringsinconvenienceaswellastheriskofmanydiseases。Therefore，therearealotofeuphemismsaboutfatnesslikeplump，chubbyortubby，etc。Skinnyisanotherunpleasantword。Noonelikestobedescribedasskinny，buttheywillbereallypleasedwhentheyhearothersdescribethemasslimorslender。
　　Thedisabledneedhelpandprotectionbuttheyaresensitive，too。Sopeoplehavetochoosetheirwordscarefullywhentheytalkaboutthem。Manyeuphemisticwordsaredesignedtoavoidmentioningthehandicapped。deafisreplacedbyhardofhearing；crippleiseuphemizedastheinconvenienced，andsoon。。
　　5。3Forelegance
　　Excrementisadisgustingtopicinpoliteconversation。Theyareavoidedbymeansofeuphemisms。Defecationreferstooneofthesickestelementsintheworld。Whenyougotoseeadoctorforastomachupset，thedoctorwillaskyou，Howisyourbowelmovement？Andifhewantstohaveafurtherexamination，hewillneedaspecimenofyourmanure。IfsomeoneroundshisthumbandindexfingeruptoformtheletterCwithotherfingersstretchingout，hewantstogotoW。C。Thereareotherexpressionshavingthesamemeaning，liketosingasong，toseethemoon，answerthenature’scall，doone’sbusinessorsimplyExcuseme。
　　Somepartsofbodyareassociatedwithsex，sotheyareavoidedbeingsaiddirectly。Thisgeneratesalargenumberofeuphemisms。bigbroweyes，bustorcoconutsreferstofemale’sbreasts；naturals，affairortailssuggestsexorgansofhumanbeing，etc。Likepartsofbody，nakednessisataboooutofembarrassmentorshame。AccordingtotheBible，AdamandEveatethewisefruit，foundthemselvesnakedandfeltveryashamed。TheyhidthemselvesbehindthebushwhentheLordcametoseethem。Thentheyusedfigleavestocoverimportantpartsoftheirbodies。Thisstorydemonstratesthatnakednesshasbeenatabooforalongtime。Therearemanyeuphemisticwordsaboutnakedness，likealtogetherandinone’sbirthdaysuit。Onceamanwasbathingwithoutlockinghisdoor，oneofhisfriendsrushedintohisroomforemergencyandfoundhewasnaked。Theybothfeltembarrassed。Thenthemanwithnothingonsaid，YouaretheonebesidesmymotherwhohasseenIaminmybirthdaysuit。Bothofthemimmediatelyburstintolaughter。
　　5。4Fordisguise
　　Everythinghasmeritsanddemerits，andeuphemismisnottheexception。Oneofthecharacteristicsofeuphemismsisitsvagueness。〔22〕Sotheyareemployedtoconcealharshandunpleasantthingsincommunications，creatingaharmonyenvironment。Butitisthisspecialfeaturethatcreateschancesforpoliticiansandbusinessmentomakeuseofeuphemismstoachievetheirselfishgoals。
　　Politiciansarefamousfortheirabilitytoplaywords。Theycaneventurnfactsupsidedown。Theytrytheirefforttopersuadepeoplethattheyliveabetterlifeundertheirleadershiptherebytogetsupportandholdtheirpositions。Oneoftheeffectivemethodstheyuseistheusageofeuphemisms。Therefore，manyeuphemismsaboutpoliticscanbeseen。Forexample，logisticalstrikesisforbombingattacks；defoliationisfordestroyingcrops，andsoon。
　　Ifyouwanttosurvivethesharpcommercialcompetition，youhavetokeepalertandattractcustomers，thesourcesofbenefits，bymeansofadvertisements。Euphemismisacommonbutsuccessfulwayusedincommercialadvertisements，foritseemsthateverybodypreferscomplimentsandpraisetoharshandupsettingtruth。Airlinecompaniesareexpertsinusingeuphemisms。Theycallthefirstclassdeluxeclass，thesecondclassbecomesfirstclassandthethirdclassiseconomicclass，businessclassortouristclass。Inthiscase，passengersinthethirdclasswillnotfeelinferioranddon’tlosetheirfaceswhentheytellotherstheytaketheeconomicclass，andpassengersinotherclassesareupliftedatthesametime。
　　Euphemismthatfunctionsasdisguiseisakindofdeceitfortheycoverupthefactofmatters。
　　6。Conclusion
　　Theemergenceofeuphemismsiscloselyrelatedtolanguagetaboosandreligion。Euphemismsareformedthroughvariousdeviceslikephoneticdevices，spellingdevices，vocabularydevices，grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices。Euphemismsarenowusedinalmostallfieldsoflifesuchasindailylife，inthefieldofeducation，etc。Theyperformthefunctionofevasionwhentheyareusedtoreplacetaboos。Besidesevasion，theyareemployedforpoliteness，eleganceanddisguise。Sinceeuphemismsplayanimportantroleinlanguage，itisagoodwayforEnglishlearnerstoimprovetheirEnglishstudybylearningandemployingEnglisheuphemisms。
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