刍议英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能

　　〔Abstract〕Euphemism，asacommonlinguisticphenomenoninworldculture，iswidelyusedineverysocialclassandfield。Englisheuphemism，asoneofmanyeuphemismsexistingintheworld，hasitsowndeeporigin，whichincludeboththereligiousoriginandthehistorical，literaryorigin。ThisthesiswilltrytodiscusstheoriginofEnglisheuphemismfromeveryaspectofreligion，race，politics，literary，andhistory。Languagereflectslife，andisalwayscloselyrelatedtothesociety。Duringthecommunication，duetosomecertainrestrictionofbehaviorandmorality，peopletendtouseeuphemismusedasakindoflubrication，makingtheharsh，indelicatewordssoundtactfulandpleasant。Englisheuphemismplaysaveryimportantroleinpeople’ssocialcommunication。ThispaperwillalsoexpoundthesocialcommunicativefunctionofEnglisheuphemismfromthethreeaspects：evasivefunction，politefunction，andcosmeticfunction。HavingagoodunderstandingoftheoriginandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemismandtheEnglishlanguageculturecanavoidmanyconflictsintheprocessofsocialcommunication。
　　〔KeyWords〕origin；communicativefunction；evasion；cosmeticfunction；politeness
　　【摘要】委婉语是世界文化中普遍存在的语言现象，它广泛应用于社会各阶层和领域。英语委婉语作为众多委婉语中的一种，具有其产生的深厚渊源，其中包宗教与政治的，也包括文学与历史的。本文试图从宗教、种族、政治、文学、历史等方面入手来探讨英语委婉语的产生渊源。语言反映生活，并且总是和社会紧密联系在一起，在语言交谈中，由于一定的行为规范和道德准则的制约，人们通常使用委婉语这一润滑剂，使刺耳，不文雅的话变得委婉愉悦。它在人们的社会交际过程中发挥着重要作用。本文从其避讳功能、礼貌功能以及掩饰功能三方面阐释了英语委婉语的社会交际功能。通过充分理解英语委婉语的起源及其社会交际功能，进一步理解英语语言文化，以避免社会交际中的各种冲突。
　　【关键词】起源；交际功能；避讳；礼貌；掩饰
　　1。Introduction
　　Euphemismisaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept。Everylanguagehasitsowneuphemism，sodoesEnglish。Itisdeeplyrootedinsociallifeandhasagreatinfluenceonsocialcommunication。AsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage，Englisheuphemismhasattractedpeople’sattentionforalongtime。SinceEuphemismwascoined，ithasplayedaveryimportantroleinpeople’scommunication。Thecommunicationwithouteuphemismisunimaginable。Euphemismisusedlikelubrication，whichmakesthecommunicationgoonsmoothly。ThisthesiswillhaveanoverviewoftheoriginofEnglisheuphemism，andstateitssocialcommunicativefunction。
　　Englisheuphemismasalinguisticconcept，ithascloserelationshipswiththewesternculture，andittrulyreflectsthelifeandvaluesofEnglishpeopleandthEirhistory。Euphemismisaparticularlygoodmediumforaccesstotheforceoflanguagethathasprovidedaneffectiveapproachtounderstandingthehumanmind。ThestudyofEnglisheuphemismcanhelpusunderstandthewesterncultureandpromotetheinternationaldevelopmentbecauseeuphemismiswidelyusedininternationalnegotiations。SothereisagreatneedforustostudyEnglisheuphemism，including：itsorigin，itssocialfunction，etc。
　　2。ThedefinitionsofEnglisheuphemism
　　Euphemismisauniversallinguisticphenomenon。Nearlyineverylanguage，therearesomedisgustingwords，whichmakepeoplefeelembarrassed。Intheprocessofcommunication，theunsuitableortoodirectwordswillmakepeoplefeeluncomfortable，evenangry。Thenthereisagreatneedforustouseatactfulwaytoexpressemotion，exchangeideas。Thatistosay，touseapleasant，mildorindirectwordsorphrasestaketheplaceoftabooedwords。
　　Itisknownthateuphemismisaformoflanguageintentionallycreatedinsocialrelationtoachieveidealcommunication。Withoutthemanylanguagewouldseemtobevulgarandrude，voidofpolitenessandvividnesstosomeextent。Asacommoncommunicationintheprocessofpeopleusinglanguage，euphemismisanimportantwayforpeopletocoordinatethesocialrelationships。Likeakindoflubrication，euphemismenablespeopletoexpresswhatcannotbeuttereddirectlyandensurescommunicationtobecarriedsmoothly。Itisalanguagestrategyincivilizedsocietyforavoidingtaboo。Itisunimaginableifthecommunicationiswithouteuphemism。Fromtheabovementioned，wecouldclearlyseethateuphemismischaracterizedbyavoidancelanguageandevasiveexpression。Thespeakersusewordsorexpressionsasaprotectiveshieldagainsttheangerordisapprovalofnaturalorsupernaturalthings。Itisoneformoflanguageandalinguisticphenomenon
　　3。TheoriginsofEnglisheuphemism
　　3。1ThereligiousoriginofEnglisheuphemism
　　TheearliestEnglisheuphemismscomefromtaboo。ThewordtaboocomesfromTogan，akindofPolynesian。Itindicatesevasivelanguageoraction。〔3〕TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismistomeettheneedofavoidingtaboos。Inprimitivesociety，peoplecan’texplainsuchthingsasailmentandsomesupernaturalphenomena。Peoplehaveconfusionbetweenthenameofthethingsandthingsthemselves。Thenameisviewedasanextensionofthings。Justastheidiomsays‘Speakofdevilandheappears’。Naturallythewordsorphrasesrelatedtosuchthingsbecometaboos。〔4〕Intheancienttimes，peoplehadblindfaithinghostsandGodstheyrespected。Theywhisperedandevenfearedthemsotheydidnotdaretoaddresstheirnamesdirectly。TheythinkitprofanetonameGod。Thereforethenamesofgodsbecometheearliesttaboos。Tospeaknameofgodswastoevokethepinitywhosepowerthenhadtobeconfronted。Suchdangerouspracticeswerereservedforpriestsskilledinnegotiatingwiththesupernatural。Sotheusualwaytoavoidistoemployeuphemisms。Therefore，forthereligiousneed，alotofeuphemismsaboutreligionemerged。Forexample，inordernottodesecrateGod，peopleinEnglishspeakingcountryalwaysusesomeothernameforGodinsteadofcallingdirectly，suchasAdonai，theAlmighty，Caesar’sCruth，theCreater，Dod，Gad，Land，Lawks，Lawd。〔5〕Theoppositesideofgodisdevil，whichismoreterribleforpeople。Whenpeoplerefertothem，theytendtousesucheuphemismstoreplace：D，theBigD，theEvilone，theBlackone，theGoodman，Jesse，Oldboy，Ourfather，Lordoflords，Kingofkings，theLightoftheworld，etc。〔6〕
　　Fromtheabovementioned，wecanfindthatreligionbringsmanyeuphemistictermsinthereligiousmatter，especiallythenamingandaddressingofGodtothelanguage。
　　3。2TheracialandnationaloriginsofEnglisheuphemism
　　Itisknowntoall，thephenomenonofracialdiscriminationisdeeplyrootedinAmericainwhichequalopportunityisflatteredbyAmericanwhitepeopleasanequalrightenjoyedbyeveryone。Duetothepressureofsocialpublicopinion，althoughsomewhitesdiscriminatetheblackfromtheirheart，theywillnotexposethiskindofprejudiceinpublic。Meanwhile，fewpeopledaretohumiliateandpersecuteblackspubliclyfornoreasonatall。Inotherwords，thewayofdiscriminationbecomestactful。Therearemanyeuphemismsemergingforthisreason。Inthe1930s，‘nigger’isstillaneutralnouninEngland，andhasnomeaningofhumiliatingblacks。Butsincethiswordhastheobviousmeaningofdiscriminatingtheblacks，mostofpeopleinEnglandandAmericansusesomeothereuphemisticwords，suchascoloredblackinstead。Whentalkingaboutsomeotherraces，itdoesnotoftenusethedirectwordsthatarerelatedtocolor。Peopleoftenusesomeeuphemisticexpression，suchasthegeographicname。
　　3。3Historical，literaryandpoliticaloriginsofEnglisheuphemism
　　FromthetimetheNormansconqueredEnglandin1066，Englishhasemergedmanyeuphemisms。Atthattime，themainreasontouseeuphemismisthatthelanguageusedbytheconqueredisoftendisparaged，andisthoughtasgrosslanguage。Theupperclasssurelydoesn’twanttolowertheirstatustousesuchwords。Inordertoavoidusingsuchgrosswords，theytendtousetheelegantwords，whichoriginatedfromLatin。AndthesewordsweremixedintoEnglishgradually。
　　Therearealsomanyeuphemismsinliteraryworks。Forexample，inHamlet，ShakespeareusetheexpressionTheundiscoveredcountryfromwhosebournnotravelerreturns（从来不曾有一个旅人回来过的神秘之国）toexpresshisgreatsympathyforHamlet。〔7〕ThefamousAmericanwriterMarkTwainusereleasetoexpressdieinhisworkTheAdventureofTomSawyer。Besides，politicsisafertileareafortheappearanceandgrowthofEnglisheuphemism，whichiscosmeticinexpressionbutdeceptiveinnature。Euphemismsofthiskindarealwaysconsciouslyanddeliberately。ThecosmeticeuphemismcanbeeasilyfoundinAmericanEnglish。Government’sdiscussionoftheVietnamWarwassaturatedwitheuphemisms。Villagesburnedandinhabitantsimprisonedwere‘Pacifications；thewaritselfwasnotawarbutaconflict，thebombingbecomeslogisticalstrikeorcloseairsupport，andkillingbecomeswastingtheenemy。Theseeuphemismsareusedtodeceiveandtohidethedirtybusinessofwar。〔8〕Theuseofsuchpoliticaleuphemismshelpsgovernmenttobeautifytheactionandpreventpeoplefromtakinganyantigovernmentaction。Soinordertosatisfythepoliticalneeds，manyeuphemismscometoexist。
　　4。ThesocialcommunicativefunctionofEnglisheuphemism
　　Fromtheperspectiveoflanguagecommunication，euphemismfunctionstoavoidtaboos，toshowpolitenessandconcealfeelings。Thankstoeuphemism，itiseasyforpeopletoacceptthethingsthatarelikelytomakeothersfeelembarrassedorunhappy。Itispeople’sgeneralcharactertoexpresstheirideasasmildlyandtactfullyaspossible。Euphemismhelpspeopletoreachthisgoal。Fromthemomenteuphemismcameintoexistence，ithasplayedaveryimportantroleinourdailycommunication，andhelpestablishagoodrelationshipbetweenhumanbeingsandevenstrengthenthesocialstability。Euphemismaremotivatedbythedesirenottobeoffensive。Peopleusethemtoshowtheirpoliteness，toavoidbeingoffensiveandtomeetthepsychologicalandbeneficialneedsofbothspeakersandhearersincommunication。Butsometimestheyareusedtoconcealorcoversomething。Accordingly，euphemismservesthreebasiccommunicativefunctions：evasivefunction，politefunctionandcosmeticfunction。
　　4。1TheevasivefunctionofEnglisheuphemism
　　Theevasivefunctionofeuphemismistoevadeusingtaboos，enablingthespeakertotalkabouttabooedthingsfreely。Thesetabooedthingsarebelievedtobedangeroustocertaininpiduals，ortothesocietyasawhole，ortobedisgustingandunpleasant，andcausefear。Suchtabooedthingsinclude：disease，disabilities，death，sex，bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess，etc。Peoplecanuseeuphemismstotalkaboutwhatcannotbetalkeddirectly。
　　4。1。1Intermsofdiseaseanddisabilities
　　Peopleyearnforhealth，andfearforspecificdiseaseandeverysortofdisability。Sopeoplealwaysusetactfulwaytoexpressthem。Forexample，sexualorvenerealdiseasesuchassyphilis，gonorrhoea，ADIS，etc。arecalledsocialdisease，‘communicativedisease，etc。inEnglish。Besides，disabilitiesareverysensitiveareaineveryculture。InEnglish，thedisabled，thehandicapped，theinconvenienced，theinvalid，auditoryimpaired，hardofhearing，talkwithone’sfingers，etc。areputintoservice。〔9〕Soeuphemismplaysaveryimportantfunctioninoursocialcommunication。Withoutit，wesometimescannotcontinueourtalk。Deathisaninevitablestageattheendoflife’sjourney。ItiscommonexperienceofhumanbEings。Yetithasbeenthesourceoffearfearofthelossoflovedones；fearoftheendofone’slife；fearoftheactualprocessofdying。Therefore，allthesefears，worries，andunpleasantfeelingscombinedleadtoverbaltabooofdeath。Euphemismsconcerningdeathareextremelyrich。InEnglish，therearemorethanseventyeuphemismsfordeath，includingtobegone，tobegonetoabetterworld，tobewithGod，tobreathone’slast，tocloseone’sday，todepartfromtheworldforever，todeparttoGod，tofallasleep，jointhegreatmajority，passaway，etc。〔10〕Nomatterwhythiswordisusedinacertainlanguage，peoplealwaystendtouselessharshwords
　　4。1。3Intermsofsex，bodyexcretionandbodyeliminationprocess
　　Wordsrelatingtosex，procreationandexcretionarehighlyrestrictedtomentionbecausetheymayevokedisgustingresponsesofpeople。Verbaltabooonthemisprobablymotivatedbytheintuitivedisaster，shame。Peopleallhavecertainfeelingsofwhichtheyaresoashamedthattheydon’tliketoadmiteventothemselves。Inpeople’sdailylifeorinsomeformaloccasion，ifthetalkordiscussionreferstosomethingaboutdrainage，peoplewilltrytoavoidusingvulgarlanguage。Theytendtousesomeimpliedorneutralwordstomakeconversationcomfortable。Forordinarypeople，thesafestwaytoavoidmentioningthesethingsthattheyhavetomentioninmanycircumstancesistouseanotherexpressioneuphemismtoreplacethetruenameofsuchathing。Forexample，inEnglishtherearemanyelegantexpressionsforgoingtoWC，suchas：towashone’shand，tospendapenny，togoandseeone’saunt，toanswerthecallofnature，becausenaturecalls，etc。〔11〕
　　ThetopicconcerningbEIngpregnantistouchybecauseittendstoarousetheassociationwithsexualbehaviors。‘Tobeatroundbushes’isverynecessary，suchaswithchild，anticipating，exceptingforpregnant，etc。〔12〕Talkingaboutsexualintercourseistaboo。Expressionsrelatingtosexhaveheavilybeenveiledforthepurposeofavoidingawkwardnessandoffense。Sopeopleuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit。Forexample，peopleevadesayinghipdirectlywhichisreplacedwithbuttock，bottom，one’sthing，andsecretpartsdonatessexorgansofbothmalesandfemales。〔13〕
　　4。1。4Intermsofoldage
　　EnglishandChinesehavedifferentfeelingsaboutoldage。AChineseisproudofbeingold，whereasawesternerwillfeelirritatedandeveninsultedatmentioninghisoldness。InEnglishculture，peopledonotdescribeothersasortobedescribedasoldbecausetheold，whonolongerwork，areignoredbysociety。Therefore，peoplecreatethesecondchildhoodgoldenyears，seniorcitizen，grayhair，maturegoldenagewhentheyrefertooldageinwhichitattemptstoconcealthefactofbecomingoldandavoidarousingoldpeople’ssadfeelingofaging。〔14〕
　　4。2ThepolitefunctionofEnglisheuphemism。
　　Politenessisanotherimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinthesociallife。Politenessisthesymbolofhuman’scivilizationandoneoftheimportantprinciplesguidingpeople’sactivities。Asakindofsignificantsocialactivity，languageactivitymustobservethisprinciple，too。Whenwehavetotalksomethingunpleasant，weshouldchooseeuphemisticwaytoexpressinordernottohurtothers。Beingpoliteisareasonableactionthatanyonewhoiskeenonfacesavingwilltake。Thepolitefunctionofeuphemismistriedtoavoidbeingharshorimpoliteinthecommunication。Inotherwords，euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions。Forinstance，whenateachercommentsonastudent’smoralconductsandschoolworkinfrontofthestudentorhisorherparent，heorsheshouldreportthefactononehand，andontheotherhandshouldtakeintoconsiderationthestudent’spsychologicalenduranceandtheparent’sface。SotheeuphemisticwaytoexpressmightbeThestudentisabitslowforhisorherageinsteadofThestudentisstupid。〔15〕
　　ThepolitefunctionofEnglisheuphemismisembodiedineveryoccupationallanguage。Occupationaldiscriminationgivespeoplepressureandemotionalirritation。Althougheuphemismscannotuprootthiskindofphenomenon，atleast，theycangivethemsomepsychologicalcomfortbyupgradingofcareername。Therefore，engineer，manager，etc。havebecomemoreandmorefashionable。Dustmanischangedtosanitaryengineer；mechanictoautomobileengineer，gardenertolandscapearchitect，shoemakertoshoerebuilder〔16〕InEnglish，therearemanyadjectivesaboutpeople’sappearance，suchasgoodlooking，handsome，pretty，charming，attractive，etc。Theyareallcommendatorywords。Whentalkingaboutsomeonewhoisnotpretty，wecannotuseuglyor‘awfully’。Wehadbetterusesomeeuphemismssuchasplain，ordinary，notparticularlylooking，etc。insteadofthem。Soeuphemism’spolitefunctioncansavepeople’sfaceintheirprocessofcommunication。Itissoimportantthatwecannotneglectit。
　　4。3ThecosmeticfunctionofEnglisheuphemism
　　Besidestheevasiveandpolitefunction，euphemismhasthecosmeticfunction。Thiskindofeuphemismisusuallyusedinthegovernment，military，politicsandcommerce。Itreferstousinggoodwordstobeautifythings，whicharenotbeautifulinrealityandmakethethingbemorepersuadedandacceptable。Becauseeuphemismhasthenatureofvagueness，tosomeextent，itisdeceptive。Traditionallyspeaking，euphemismplaysapositiveroleinsociallife。Usingit，peoplecanavoidsomeembarrassedandungraciousoccasion。Butjustaseverycoinhastwosides，euphemismhasnoexception。Usingitsuitablycancoordinatesocialrelationships，butabusingitwillmisleadthepublic，willcoveruptheessenceofthings。Forexample，inmodernWesternsociety，thepooriscalledastheneedy，lateritwaschangedtotheculturallydeprived，thentotheunderprivileged，atlasttothedisadvantaged。Soitwillconfusepeoplethatthiscountryissorichthatthereisnopoorpeopleatall。Secondly，thiskindofeuphemismiswidelyusedincommerce。Itisoftenusedtoplaytricksandtodeceivethecustomers。Thecommercialexaggeratestheproduct’sfunctionandquality。Inthesameway，theEnglisheuphemismisalsousedtomakecustomersfeelpleased。Forexample，inordertomeetthepassengers’senseofdignity，someAirlinescallFirstClassDeluxeClassorPremiumClass；SecondClassFirstClass；andThirdClassbecomeBusinessClass，EconomicClass，orTouristClass。〔19〕Doinglikethese，itseemsthatallpassengers’positionarepromoted。Theirpurposeistoattractmorepassengersandgainmoreprofitsbyusingeuphemismsinthecommunication，meanwhile，thecustomersfeelmoredecent，andithelpscustomerssaveface。
　　Inshort，euphemismofthiskindmaymakeanideamorepalatable，buttheyinflatelanguage，reduceprecisionandoftentamperwithtruth。Somepeoplecondemneuphemismasdemoralizingbecauseofitshypocrisy，whichotherconsiderthemusefulintheaspectofcoordinatingsocialrelationships。However，thefactremainsthateuphemismsareverymuchapartofthelanguage，andwhat’smoreimportantforusisnottodebatetheirmeritsordemerits，butrathertobeabletorealizethatEnglisheuphemismcanserveforthespecialsocialactivitiesundercertaincircumstance。
　　5。Conclusion
　　EnglisheuphemismasanessentialpartofEnglishlanguage，isobservedeverywhereandwidelyusedinpeople’sdailycommunication。
　　OntheissueoftheoriginandsocialcommunicativefunctionofEnglisheuphemism，thisthesishasatentativeexploration。Butthiskindofexplorationisinastateofdevelopmentbecauseeuphemismisdevelopedallthetime。Euphemismrootsineveryaspectofsociallife，andisdevelopedwiththeadvancementofsociety。EnglisheuphemismisamirrorofWesterncultureintheformofEnglishlanguage。Fromthemomentitwasborn，ithasdistinctculturecolor。Euphemismundoubtedlyreflectstheinnerrelationshipamongtheculturaltradition，socialvaluesandtheformoflanguage。
　　Inspeechinteraction，sometimes，outofpolitenessortact，oneusesapleasant，lessdirectwordinsteadofsomethingunpleasant。Usingeuphemismisspeaker’sactivepragmaticstrategyinacertaintimeandacertainsituation。EnglisheuphemismpromotesthedevelopmentofEnglishlanguage，andenrichesthevocabulariesofEnglishlanguage，givingpeopleafeelingofwarmandfresh。Inthe21stcentury，withthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology，manysocialproblemsrise，too。Peoplecraveforthegentle，warmandeasyunderstoodwords。Euphemismemergesceaselesslyjustrightformeetingthispsychologicalneed。Asacommoncommunicationmediumandarhetoricmethod，Englisheuphemismwillbeusedwiderandwider。Somescholarsholdtheopinionthatitisunreasonabletouseeuphemismbecausetheyhavethenatureofdeceit，especiallyinpoliticsandgovernment。Butwecannotdenythefactthateuphemismisveryhelpfulintheprocessofhumancommunication。Twentyfirstcenturyisaperiodwhenpeopleofdifferentculturehaveevenmoretoucheswitheachother。SoitisvitalforustohaveagoodunderstandingofEnglisheuphemism。Itisunimaginableifthediplomaticnegotiationiswithouteuphemism。Usingeuphemismisakindoflanguageskillthateachofusshouldmaster。
　　Bibliography〔2〕吴长旗AnAnalysisofDiplomaticEuphemismfromthePerspectivesofCooperativePrinciplesandPolitenessPrinciple。重庆大学外国语言学及应用语言学硕士学位论文。2004。5P7
　　〔3〕韩银燕，刘蕾。从心理因素看委婉语的社会交际功能〔J〕。沈阳师范大学学（社会科学版）。2005。3P146
　　〔4〕同〔1〕P4
　　〔5〕吴祥云。委婉语的社会功用〔J〕。昭通师范高等专科学校学报。2004。2P30
　　〔6〕同〔5〕P30
　　〔7〕毛新耕。论英汉委婉语的生成基础〔J〕。云梦学刊。2004。3P3
　　〔8〕李胜娟。浅析英语委婉语的掩饰功能〔J〕。湖南农业大学学报（社会科学版）。2004。12P94
　　〔9〕胡春梅。论委婉语的构成及功能〔J〕。浙江教育学院学报。2005。1P32〔11〕同〔10〕P59〔13〕范丽群AStudyofCultureConnotationofEnglishEuphemism湖南师范大学英语语言文学硕士学位论文2005。5P43〔15〕牟宜武。论英语委婉语极其构造〔J〕。甘肃科技纵横。2005。2P133〔17〕王平。英语委婉语的交际功能及其构造方式探微〔J〕。福建师范大学福清分校学报。2004。4P62
　　〔18〕同〔10〕P59
　　〔19〕同〔15〕P133