浅析中英语言禁忌

　　〔Abstract〕Language，asthecarrierofculture，iscreatedduringtheprocessofhumanbEings’productivelaborandservesasthetoolofcommunicationtoconveythemessagebetweenpeople。However，ithasbeenendowedwithmagicandpowerinparticularlanguageacts。Astheoldsayinggoes，troublescomeoutofthetongue。Superstitiouspeoplethinkthatthelanguageitselfcanbringaboutfortuneormisfortunesothattaboostorestricttheuseoflanguagearecreated。Anyonewhoviolatesthemwillgetpunishment，whereasthosewhofaithfullyobeytherestrictionsoflanguagetaboowillgetprotection。Furthermore，linguistictabooschangewiththedevelopmentofsociety。Thepaperfirstlyanalyzestheevolutionoflinguistictaboo。Secondly，itisindicatedinthepaperthatlinguistictabooexistsinalmosteveryaspectofpeople’slifeandisauniversalsocialphenomenoninChinaandBritain。BothChineseandEnglishculturesareinagreementaboutlinguistictaboossuchaspronunciationtaboo，andvocabularytaboo。However，influencedbydifferentculturalbackgrounds，ideologiesandtheconceptsofvalue，ChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboosalsohavedifferences，asisdiscussedinthepaperfromtheaspectsoftaboosubjects，taboonumbersandnames。Atlast，thispaperputsforwardtwoeffectivewaysofavoidingtaboo，thatis，usingeuphemismandhavingagoodknowledgeofthetabooculture。AndthisdiscussionwouldhelpEnglishlearnersimprovethEIrabilityofcrossculturalcommunicationandachievebettercommunicationaleffects。
　　〔KeyWords〕linguistictaboo；evolution；similarities；differences
　　【摘要】语言是人们在活动过程中产生和发展起来的一种社交工具，其功能就是沟通信息，但在特定的语言行为中，却被赋予了它自身所没有的超人的感觉和超人的力量。社会成员竟认为语言本身能给人类带来某种吉祥或不幸，人为地设置了种种语言禁区。他们相信谁要是违背这些语言禁忌，谁就会受到应有的惩罚。反之，谁要是忠实遵循了语言禁忌的约束，谁就会得到相应的庇护和保佑。语言禁忌会随着社会的发展而变化。本论文首先论述了语言禁忌的演变，接着提出语言禁忌存在于人们生活的各个方面，是一种普遍存在的社会现象。在汉英两种语言中，有些忌讳是一致的。文中分析了中英语言禁忌在语音层面、词汇方面的相似性。但是由于汉英民族文化背景、意识形态、价值观念等的不同，中英语言禁忌的内容和形式也有一些差异，因此本论文还探讨了中英语言禁忌在私人话题、数字和命名称谓方面的互异性。这些异同和发展演进往往会给跨文化交际带来一些障碍，为此，有效避免使用禁忌语的方法主要是使用委婉语代替禁忌词，并充分了解异国的文化背景。希望本论文的研究能帮助英语学习者加深英汉两种语言和文化的理解，提高跨文化交际能力，避免交际失败，达到理想的交际效果。
　　【关键词】语言禁忌；演变；相似点；不同点
　　1。Introduction
　　Itismanifestedinlanguage：persons，thingsandactivitiesthataretabooshouldnotbetalkedaboutorshouldbementionedinaroundaboutwayinlanguage。Wordsandexpressionsrelatedtothesesocialtaboosarelinguistictaboos。〔1〕TheabovedefinitionshowsthatLinguistictaboo，asanintegralpartoflanguage，isnotonlyalinguisticphenomenonbutalsoasocialphenomenon。
　　Likeotherpartsoflanguage，theoriginoflinguistictabooisdeeplyrootedintheprimitivesocialandculturalbackgroundanditschangeisgreatlyinfluencedbythedevelopmentofhumansocietyinordertosatisfyhumanbeings’needsforsmoothcommunications。Withtheadvancementofscienceandtechnology，manypuzzlesabouttheuniversearesolved，andwiththeincreaseofmaterialwealth，humandemandsforspiritualcivilizationarealsobecominghigher。Evidently，linguistictaboosareareflectionofthesesocialdevelopmentandthevalueconceptsandbeliefsofthecultureinwhichtheyareborn。Itexistsineveryaspectofpeople’slife。
　　TherearesomesimilaritiesinEnglishandChineselinguistictaboo，butdifferentculturesmaynotallagreeonwhatisorisnotatabooinaspecificcontext。SothedifferencesalsoexistbetweenEnglishandChineselinguistictaboo。ALackofknowledgeinthisfieldorimproperuseoflinguistictaboosmayleadtomisunderstandings，conflictsandotherunknownseriousconsequencesinthecrossculturecommunicationswhichisincreasinglyfrequentandwidernow。
　　Thispaperintendstostudytheevolutionoflinguistictaboo，toanalyzethesimilaritiesbetweenChineseandEnglishlinguistictabooinpronunciationandvocabulary，andpresentthedifferencesfromtheaspectsofnames，numbersaswellastaboosubjectsinbothcultures。Lastbutnotleast，twoeffectivewaysareproposedtoavoidlinguistictaboos。
　　2。TheevolutionoflinguistictabooAswehavementionedabove，linguistictabooisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenonbutalsoakindofsocialphenomenon。Thedevelopmentofsocietyhasinfluencedthedevelopmentoflinguistictaboo。Soifwewanttorevealthewholepictureoflinguistictaboo，wemusthaveareviewofthehistoryoflinguistictaboo。Theevolutionoflinguistictaboohasgenerallyexperiencedthreestagesaccordingtothehistoryofhumansociety：theprimitivesuperstitionsstage，thefeudalpatriarchalstage，andmoderndemocraticstage。Butthereisnoexplicitdemarcationlinebetweenthreestages。〔3〕
　　2。1Theprimitivesuperstitiousstages
　　Asweallknow，Intheprimitivesociety，peopledidn’tgettoknowwellaboutnature，mostnaturalphenomenasuchaslightning，thunder，storm，earthquake，werebeyondtheunderstandingofhumanbeings。Whenthesephenomenahappened，theythoughtthatcertainsupernaturalcreaturespossessedgreatpower。Theythoughtthatiftheywereloyaltothesesupernaturalcreatures，theywouldbesafeorrewarded。Iftheyactedagainstthem，theywouldbepunishedseverely。Asaresult，theprimitivepeoplecreateddifferentkindsofgods。Theyheldastrongreligiousconvictionthatthesegodscontrolledtheworldthattheywerelivingin。Sothefirstthingtheydidwastorespectthesegodsthroughlanguage。ThereisanexamplefromtheSeventhCommandmentoftheTenCommandmentinBibleYoushallnotmakewrongfuluseofthenameoftheLordyourGod，fortheLordwillnotacquitanyonewhomisuseshisname。〔4〕
　　Inaword，theearliestlinguistictabooemergedasaresultoftheignoranceandsuperstitionoftheprimitivepeopleinancienttimes。
　　2。2Thefeudalpatriarchalstage
　　Feudalsocietyisrigidlystratified。Acountryoffeudalismisusuallycontrolledbytheroyalsandsometimestogetherwiththoseconsideredwithgreatpowergivenbygod。
　　Duringthefeudaltimes，peoplewerenotequaltotherulersandweresuppressedbytheirsuperiors。Thedistinctionbetweentheupperandthelowerclasseswasalsoreflectedintheevaluationofthelanguageusedbythemrespectively。Thewordsofupperclassusedwereconsideredgoodandelegantwhilethoseusedbythelowerclasswereregardedasvulgarandindecentandshouldbeavoidedinthespeechofladiesandgentlemen。Forexample，whenreferringto‘出汗’，duchessesusedtheword‘perspire’，butthefemaleservantsused‘sweat’；whenreferringto‘吐痰’，theformerpeopleused‘expectorate’，butthelatterused‘spit’；Asfor‘月经’，theformerused‘menstruate’，butthelatterused‘bleed’。ThemaximHorsessweat；menperspire；youngladiesglowmoreorlesscanreflectthestratifiedusageofwordswhichhavethesamemeaninginthisperiod。〔5〕InChina，duringthefeudaltimes，menusuallyplayadominantroleinfamily。WecanseeitfromtheChineseexpressions三从四德，三纲五常etc。Inordertostrengthentheirpositionandtopreventtheirsubjectsfromviolatingthem，theroyalsandkingsputforwarddifferentkindsofprohibitionsandbans。Forinstance，toshowtheirauthorityandmajesty，thenameoftheemperorandhisancestorsshouldnotbementioned。Atthesametime，peoplealwaysavoidedspeakingouttheirparents’namesoreventhecharactersintheirparents’names。Theoldsaying古人闻父名而泣canprovethispoint。
　　Mostlinguistictaboosduringthisperiodwereputintoeffectbyrulersinordertomaintaintheirsuperiorsocialpositionandkeepthesocietyundertheircontrol。However，someofthem，becauseoftheirdeeprootedinfluenceonpeople’smind，stillremaininlanguageevenafterthecollapseofthesocialsystem
　　2。3Themoderndemocraticstage
　　Inmodernsociety，asaresultofthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology，manynaturalphenomenaarenolongermysterious。Humanbeingsnotonlyconstantlyimprovetheirabilitiestoexploittheworldwheretheyarelivingthroughtheirgreatwisdomandknowledge，butalsomakeeffortstoexploretheextraterrestrialworld。Sciencehasmuchmoresayintoday’ssociety。Thereby，thesuperstitiouselementsinlinguistictaboosdecreasewhilethosereflectingspiritualcivilizationincrease。
　　Duringsuchanopenmindedperiod，peoplevaluefreedom，equalityanddemocracyverymuch。Manyminoritiesstruggleforequalrightswiththemajorities。Asaresult，linguistictaboosconcerningracialdiscriminationarise。Forexample，intheUnitedStates，niggerwaswidelyusedtocallblackpeopleinthe1960sbutnowitisforbiddeninnormalinteractionbecausesuchformofaddressingshowscontemptfortheblackandgoesagainstthespiritofhumanrights。
　　Inaddition，moreandmorewomenstepoutsidetheirhousestoworktogetherwithmen。Theydon’twanttodependonmenanylonger。However，thetraditionalideasaboutwomenstiflethefulfillmentoftheirabilitiesandtheyareoftentreatedunfairlyinwork。Thisforceswomentoriseandfightforequalitieswithmenandmoreandmoremenbegintolearntorespectwomen，whichwillhaveaninfluentialeffectonthelanguage。Asaresult，taboosonsexistlanguageincrease。Besides，inaneraofpeace，therelativestabilityofsocietyandthefastpaceoflife，peopledon’tbothermuchtoavoidthingsintheobjectiveworld。Instead，theypreferlivingapleasantandharmoniouslife。Theyenjoyspiritualentertainmentverymuch，sotheytrytoavoidthosewordsandbehaviorsthatmaymakeothersfeelunpleasanttokeeptheharmoniousrelationship。Thoseprofessionsthatwerelookeddownuponinthepastarebeautifiednow。Thesubstitutionofsanitationengineerforgarbagecollectorisagoodexampleforthis。
　　Asawhole，sincethethirdstage，peopletodayshowmorerespectforscienceandtechnologyandhumanrightsothatthesuperstitiousandfeudalelementsinlinguistictaboostendtoreducewhilethosereflectingtheadvancementofhumansocietyandspiritualcivilizationtendtoincrease。
　　3。ThesimilaritiesbetweenChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboo
　　Therearetaboosforreligion，sex，death，disease，socialbias，etcinbothChineseandEnglishculturesandtheyarereflectedintheirrespectivelanguageandbecomeakindoflinguisticphenomenon。ThesimilaritiesofChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboomainlyembodyinthefollowingaspects：
　　3。1Inpronunciation
　　BothChinesepeopleandEnglishpeoplebelievethatsayingwordsthatimplymisfortunesordisastersmaybringthemtrouble，andtheythoughtmisfortunescanbepreventedbyreplacingthewordswithhomophonesthathavebettermeanings。
　　InChina，manytabooshavebeencausedbysuperstitions。InShanxiprovinceofChina，thereisacustomthatmulberriescannotbeplantedinfrontofthehouseandwillowscannotbeplantedbehindthehouse，becausetheChinesecharacter桑（mulberry）soundsthesameas丧（mourning）and柳（willow）soundsthesameas绺。Theymayindicatethattherewillbeafuneralandsomethingwillbestolen。〔6〕Gamblerswon’tsay书（book），becausetheChineseshu书（book）soundthesamewithshu输（defeat）。Chinesepeoplewillnotpresentaclockasagiftinweddingsorotherceremonies，becauseclockpronounceszhong（钟），whichhasthesamepronunciationaszhong终（end），meaningdeathinChinese。ManyotherexamplesalsocanbefoundinChinese。SomefishermaninSouthChinaavoidsayingsuchwordasfan翻（turnover）orchen沉（sink）andanyotherwordswithsimilarsounds。Someevenchangetheirsurnamechen陈whichsoundsthesameaschen沉。ItissaidthatthechopstickspeopleintheEastusewhenhavingmealswereoriginallycalledzhu箸inancientChina。Sinceithadthesamesoundaszhu住（stop），itwasreplacedlaterbykuaizi筷子sincekuai筷soundslikekuai快（quick）。Inwesterncountries，therearealsomanysuchkindsofexamples。Whenawordsoundsthesameasatabooword，itneedschangingintoanotherexpression。Forinstance，inearlier18thcentury，thefemaleinEnglishandAmericancountriesalwaystriedtoavoidusingtheword‘arse（thebottompartofthebodyonesitson）’，whichwasconsideredinelegant。Sopeoplecalledtheanimal‘ass’as‘donkey’。〔7〕Anothertypicalexampleisthatfuck（asail），feckorfack（fact）areseldomusedorevengooutofuse，becausetheypronouncethesameasfuck。Neamanmadeaconclusionthatthereasonwhysomewordsdisappearedwererelatedtothefactthattheirpronunciationarethesameassometaboowords。〔8〕
　　3。2Invocabulary
　　Roughlyspeaking，taboowordsinEnglishfallintothreetypes，namelyobscenities，profanitiesandvulgarities。〔9〕Basedonthisclassification，thepartfirstlyanalyzesthethreetypesasfollows：
　　3。2。1Inobscenities
　　Obscenewordsrefertowordsrelatingtosexinashockingandoffensiveway。Thatistosay，obscenewordsmaycauseoffencetothesocialmoralprinciples。Theyusuallygooutofuseinpublicoccasionandcannotappearinliterarylanguage。Thesewordsarerelatedtohumanbeingssexualbehaviors。InbothEnglishandChinese，thesewordsaretobeavoidedinpoliteconversations，becausetheymaycausestrongdisapproval。
　　InAmerica，theSexualRevolutionin1960sand70smadepeoplemoreopentowardsex，butnowwordssuchasmakingloveandhavingsexstillseldomappeardirectlyinwriting，letaloneinconversation。Westernpeopleareserioustowardssextermstoacertaindegree，sotospeak。
　　TheChinesepeoplealsotreattermsonsexseriously。Chinesepeoplealwaysusetheexpressionof作风问题or不正当关系toshowtheimmoralrelationshipbetweenamanandawoman。
　　Asweallknow，pregnancyisanormalphysiologicalphenomenon，butindailylife，peoplewon’tsayitdirectly，asitisrelatedtosex。Ifsomeoneispregnant，Englishpeoplewillsay，sheisexpectingababyorsheisinafamilyway。SimilareuphemismscanbefoundinChinese有喜了，行动不便了。
　　3。2。2Inprofanities
　　ProfanitiesrefertoreligiouswordsusedinawaythatshowsalackofrespectforGodorholythings。Religionisafertilefieldofthistypeoftabooterms。AtypicalexampleisthatChristiancannotrefertoGodorGod’sname。TheTenCommandmentsforbidpeopleto‘takethenameoftheLordyourGodinvain’。Soitisconsideredveryrudetosay‘goddame’or‘goddamned’。〔10〕ThewordssuchasGod，Jesus，damnandhelletc，areconsideredhollyandonlyproperlyusedinreligion。Iftheyappearindailycommunication，theywillmakepeopleunpleasantanddisgusted。Sopeoplealwaystrytoavoidusingthesetaboowordsdirectly。TheywouldliketousetheireuphemismsGosh，Jeeperscreepers，dashandheck。Somepeoplealsoavoidreferringtothedevil，whichisconsidereddisrespectful。Sotheyusethedeuce，thedickens，oldNicktosubstitutethedevil。
　　WecanfindsimilarexamplesinChinese。Inreligion，peopleusesomecomplimentaryaddresstorefertoawesomegods，e。g。大帝，大圣，佛陀（Buddha）。Anotherexampleisthat，tigerisregardedasthepineanimalneartheChangbaiMountainsituatedintheNortheastofourcountry。Therefore，therewasthecustomoftigeristhegodinancienttimes。Peopleavoidedcallingthetigerdirectlyandgavethetigeranothername，山君or山佛爷。
　　3。2。3Invulgarities
　　BothinEnglishandChinesethevulgarwordsareusuallyrudeandoffensiveandbringaboutunpleasantness，angerorconflicts。
　　SwearwordsinEnglishareoftencalledfourletterwords，becausemostofthemareshort，andmanyaremadeupoffourletters，e。g。：piss，shit，crap，fuck。Thesesocalledfourletterwordsareconsideredvulgar。〔11〕
　　Swearwordsformedbyemployingsomeoftheanimals’namesarevulgaritiestoo。
　　Theyareveryimproperexpressionsinmostconversations，especiallywhentherearemaleandfemaleatthesametime，suchasbitch，cow，swine，pigetc。TheBritishParliamenthasoncepublishedawordlist。Thewordsonthelistareabusiveandwereunparliamentaryexpressions，suchas‘cad’，‘cheeky’，‘liar’，‘prevaricating’，‘fascist’etc。〔12〕Ingeneralsituation，evenindailycommunications，thesevulgarwordsareconsideredtaboowords。
　　InChinese，therearealsomanysimilarsayings，suchas小兔崽子，羊巴羔子，狗娘养的，小王八etc。Thesewordsareusedtoinsultothers。Peoplealwaystrytoavoidusingtheminanormalandpolitecommunication。
　　Theevolutionoflinguistictabooindicatesthattaboosinvolveinalmosteveryfieldoflife。Thereforetheabovethreetypesoftaboowordsdon’tpresentacompletelistoftabootermsandtheauthorhasfoundothertypesoftaboowordsinotherreferences。
　　3。2。4Intermsconcerningdisease，deathandphysicaldisability
　　EitherinEnglishorinChineseculture，disease，death，andphysicaldisabilitymayhorrifypeople。Sopeopledon’tliketomentionthesedirectlyinconversation。Therefore，theyareconsideredtaboos。
　　InbothEnglishandChinese，deathisviewedasdeparting。InEnglish，wecanfindmanyeuphemismsfordeath，suchasgo，depart，departfromthisworld，gotoabetterworld，gothewaysofallflesh，passawayetc。InChinese，wealsocanfindsimilareuphemisms：去了，离开了我们，辞世，去见马克思了，归西，升天，上路etc。InbothEnglishandChinese，deathiscomparedtosleeping，sleepinEnglishcorrespondto正寝，长眠，or永眠inChinese。
　　Wordsdenotingterriblediseasearealsosourcesofhorror。InEnglish，peopledon’tliketotalkaboutterriblediseaseordiseaserelatedtosexualorgansdirectly。Forinstance，theyuseV。Dinsteadofveneraldisease；usebigC，longdisease，orterminalillnesstoreplacecancer。Abbreviationsareoftenusedtoalleviatetheshockingeffect。Forinstance，SARSisusedtosubstitutetheterriblenameSevereAcuteRespiratorySyndromes。
　　InChinese，whenwetalktoapatient，wemaysay你今天不舒服，别上班了。Here，weuse不舒服insteadof病。Asasoldier，wemaysay挂彩了insteadof伤。
　　Mentalillnessesarethoughtnottobementioneddirectly。Forexample，whenreferringtoamentalillness，wejustsayalittleeccentricoralittleconfused。
　　EitherinChineseorWestern，peoplehavesympathyforone’sphysicaldisability。Ifsomeonelooksugly，wewillsayshehelooksplainordinaryandwewon’tusethewordfattodescribeaman。Weonlyuseheavilysetorontheheavyside。Ifagirlisthin，wewon’tuseskinny。Wejustsayslender，andwhenwerefertoacrippled，wewillsay，physicallyhandicapped。InChinese，ifoneisdeaf，wewillsay耳朵背，耳朵有点不好，说话得近点。InEnglish，itiscalledhardofhearing。
　　3。2。5Intermsconcerningpartsorexcretionofthebody
　　Inbothcultures，peoplethinkthatcertainpartsofthebodyandtheexcretionofbodycannotbementionedindailyconversations。Theyareoftenconsideredtaboos。
　　Forexample，inEnglish，therearesomanyeuphemismsforlavatory，suchaswashroom，restroom，bathroom，comfortstation。Iftheywanttogotolavatory，theywillsay：gotothebathroom，dothEIrbusiness，answernature’scall。InChinese，厕所isalwaysavoidedinpublicoccasion，onemaysay：去一号or去方便一下。。
　　3。2。6Indiscrimination
　　Inrecentyears，thereisagrowingtendencytoregardastaboolanguagethatreflectsademeaningattitudetowardscertainsocialorethnicgroups。Racistlanguageandsexistlanguage，forexample，areoffensivetothesocialorethnicgroupsdiscriminatedagainst。〔13〕
　　Discriminationagainstwomanisauniversalandunreasonablephenomenoninthesociety。Anditsreflectiononlanguageissexistlanguage。BothinEnglishandChinese，therearetracesofsexistlanguage。Unlessoneiscarefulenoughwithhisherspeech，onemayeasilyoffendothersunconsciously。
　　InChina，underthecontrolofstricthierarchyfeudalsociety，thefemaleswereregardedinferior。Theydependonmaleandweredominatedbymale。Sothediscriminationandprejudiceagainstwomenisthelongtermaccumulation，whichisinevitablyreflectedinChinese。Forexample，thesayings妇人之见，头发长见识短，男子汉不和妇人一般见识，长舌妇，etc，reflectthepejorativeattitudetowardwomen。Andtherearealsomanyderogatorytitlesforwomen，suchas贱人，泼妇，母老虎，母夜叉，娘儿们，悍妇etc。
　　SincetheChinesewomen’ssocialstatuseshaveincreased，thesesayingsareusedmuchlessfrequently。Theusingofthescornfulandpejorativewordsforwomeninpublicoftengetscriticismandresentment。
　　InEnglish，therearealsomanysexistexpressions。Forexample，apersonofunknownsexisreferredashe，orhimratherthansheorher。Apersonwhopresidesameetingisthechairman，evenifsheisawoman。Therearemanyotherexamplesaboutit。cowmeans（a）womanwhohasmanychildren，muttonmeans（a）dissolutewoman，henmeans（a）womanwholikesgossip，catmeans（a）maliciouswoman，cronemeans（an）uglywitheredoldwomanetc。
　　Nowadays，perhapsasaresultoftheWoman’sLiberationMovementinthe1960sand70sinwesterncountries，especiallytheU。S。Aandsocioculturedevelopment，mostnativeEnglishspeakerstrytoavoidsoundinglikeasexist。〔14〕Forexample，theychangethewordchairmanintochairperson，gentlemanintogentleperson。Whenreferringtohumanbeings，peoplebegintousehumankindorthehumanraceinsteadofmanormankind。
　　Racismisthebeliefthatcertainhumanracesareinherentlyinferiortoothersandracistlanguageisthatwhichshowsabiasedattitudetowardscertainracialorethicgroups。〔15〕InEnglish，nomatterintentionallyornot，thefollowingwordsareagainstblackpeopleandannoyingthemunsatisfied。Forexample，whitemeanspure，clean，benevolent，whichhavepositivemeaning。Whileblackisrelatedtoevil，wrongdoing，anddirtysuchasblackguard，blacklist，blackmarketc。Besides，niggerandboy，forablackadultman，oftenhaveoffensivemeaning。
　　InChinese，thereisalsoracistlanguage。Forexample，using蒙古大夫foranincompetentdoctors；using小鬼子forJapanese。洋鬼子，大鼻子forwesterners。〔16〕Mostofthesewordsarederogatory。ItshowsoffthatChineseismoresuperiorthanotherracialorethicgroups。
　　4ThedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboo
　　AlthoughtherearemanysimilaritiesinEnglishandChinese，differentviewsaboutwhatisorisn’ttaboocanbefoundintwocultures。DifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishlinguistictabooembodythefollowingaspects：
　　4。1。Insubjects
　　Englishpeopleplaceahighvalueonprivacy。TheEnglishhaveasaying‘Aman’shomeishiscastle，meaningaman’shomeissacredtohim；nooneshouldcomeinwithoutpermission。Soitisalsowithhislifeandpersonalaffairs’。〔17〕ChinesepeopleoftenliketogreettootherslikeHaveyouhadameal？Thiscommongreetingindicateswebeginourconversationwithouracquaintance，justasforeignersaskHownicetheweather！ButtheChinesegreetingwillmaketheforeignerssuspectthatyouwanttoinvitehimtojointhedinner。Sometimeswhenwegettogetherandtalknaturallyaboutthesequestions：Howaboutyoursalary？Areyoumarried？，Whatdoyourwifehusbanddo？，Howmuchisyourskirt？Inthisway，weexpressourcareforourfriends。Generallyspeaking，weneverfeelembarrassedabouttheseconversations，butwhenweaskthewesternersthesamequestions，theywillthinkwemayinvolveintheirprivacy。Annoyingly，inwesterncountries，itisalsoimpropertoaskaboutotherpeople’sreligiousbeliefs。Areyoureligious？Whatisyourreligion？AreyouCatholic？etcarequestionsthatmightbeoffensivetomostEnglishspeakers。Peopledon’tlike，especiallyfemale，otherstoaskthemHowoldareyou？，becausetheyareverysensitivetotheirage。Evenonabirthdaycallonemayfindthefollowingcongratulation：Youmaynotliketoberemindedthatyouareayearoldertoday，butthatwouldnotkeepmefromsaying‘happybirthday！’。〔18〕Butincontrast，therewasnosuchconceptofprivacyinChinesepeople’smind。
　　4。2Innumbers
　　InChina，thenumber4andtheword死（death）almostsoundthesame。Peopledonotlikethenumber4，becauseitremindsthemofdeath。Amongoldpeople，theythink73and84aretwokeyages。Ifyouare73or84yearsold，youwilldiebeforetheKingofhellinvitesyou。Somanyoldpeopleavoidtalkingtheirexactages。
　　Whileinwesterncountries，oneofthemostinfluentialtaboonumbersis13。AccordingtothestoryofThelastsupper：Judas，thepersonwhobetrayedJesus，satintheNo。13chair，therefore，Numberthirteenisuniversallyconsideredtobeunlucky。Nodoor’snumberisthirteen；nohotelhastheNo。13Room；theydon’tallow13peoplehavedinnertogether。Allinaword，theyavoidnumberthirteenineveryaspect。Ordinarypeoplefeelupseton13thineverymonth。Therefore，thirteenbecameataboowordinwesterncountries。
　　AnothernumberconcerningtabooinwesternisFriday。Italsohaslongbeenconsideredasanunluckyday。ThistabootermaffectspeopleprobablynotonlybecausetheybelievethatJesusChristwasputtodeathonthecrossonFriday，butalsobecauseFridayisformanyyearsthedayofexecutionofcriminals，commonlycalledhangman’sday。〔19〕
　　AnotherstrikingcontrastisthatChinesepeoplelikeevennumbers。Forexample，theysay好事成双，成双成对。Chinesepeopleespeciallyliketheevennumber6and8。Thesaying六六大顺canproveit。Butinwesterncountries，theylikeoddnumbers。TheRomanpoetVirgilsays，‘Thegoddelightsinanoddnumber’。InShakespeare’splayMerrywivesofWindsor，Falstaffsays，‘Goodluckliesinoddnumbers’Theysay，‘thereispinityinoddnumbers，eitherinnativity，chanceordeath。’〔20〕
　　4。3Innames
　　5Waysofavoidinglinguistictaboo
　　5。1Usingeuphemism
　　Fromtheabovediscussion，weknowthatsomeharsh，blunt，unpleasantoffensiveandtaboothingsoractsshouldnotbeexpresseddirectlyinourdailylife。Soitisveryimportantforustoknowhowtoavoidtheselinguistictaboos。
　　Mostlinguistictabooscanbeavoidedbytheemploymentofeuphemisms。（Euphemismreferstotheuseofpleasant，vagueorindirectwordsorphrasestotaketheplaceofmoreaccuratedirectortabooones。）Inotherwords，euphemismisameansofexpressingthewordsorthingsthatareprohibited。
　　Euphemismsareusedalmostinallfieldsoflife。Forexample，whenajudgegivesthecriminalasentence，hewilldirectlysay：Iherebysentenceyoutofiveyearsinprison。Butthecriminalhimselforhisrelativeswilltellothers：Somebodyissenttothebighouse。forthepurposeofsavingface
　　Atthesametime，wemustrealizethatlanguageisaliveandchangingallthetime。Influencedbythesocialpsychologyanditsculture，euphemismschangeconstantly。Aeuphemismmayquicklyacquirethestigmaoftheworditreplacedandbecomesatabooafterpeopleuseitforatime。Forexample，thereisaseriesofexpressionsaboutthewordpoor。AtfirstIwaspoor，then，Ibecameneedy，laterIwasunderprivileged。NowI’mdisadvantaged。Istilldon’thaveacenttomyname，butIsurehaveagreatvocabulary。〔24〕
　　Anotherexampleisthat，inAmericanEnglish，euphemismsforthewordbuttocksarearse，ass，prat，can，tail，cheeks，caboose，fundamentandnowthenewestoneissittingdownplace。
　　5。2Havingagoodknowledgeofthetabooculture
　　Languageandculturerelyoneachotherandinfluenceeachother。Languagesareformedanddevelopundercertainculturalbackground。Linguistictabooisakindofsocialphenomenon。Itsexistenceanddevelopmentarerestrictedandinfluencedbyspecificculturalbackground。SomewordsareprohibitedinEnglish；somewordsarebannedinChineseandsomewordsareprohibitedinbothlanguages。Asaresult，ifonewantstoavoidviolatingtaboos，heorsheshouldhaveagoodknowledgeofwhatisorisnotataboointhisculture。Forexample，inChina，thewordoldmeansexperienceandwisdom。Atthesametime，Chinesepeopleareinfluencedbythelongtermconceptofrespectingtheoldandtakingcareoftheyoung。Chinesepeopleseemtoliketoaddresseachotheras老（old），forexample，老爷爷，老奶奶，老林，老吴，老教授。ButEnglishpeoplealwaysconnecttheoldwithuselessnessanddeath。Therefore，whencontactingwithEnglishpeople，thesayingofsomebodyisoldshouldbeavoidedinordernottoarouseunpleasantness。ForExample，wecannotcallsomebodyoldSmithoroldBrown。Especiallyforwomenwhoaresensitivetoage，nomatterhowoldtheyare，weshouldnotcallthem奶奶or大娘，thoughtheyarepleasantgreetingsinChina。InEnglish，expressionssuchasseniorcitizens，advancedinage，goldenyearsetc。areproducedinordertoavoidold。
　　Asmoothcrossculturalcommunicationgreatlybenefitsfromthegoodcommandofaforeignlanguage’sculturalbackgroundknowledge。ItishardtoimagineaChinesewhohasapoorknowledgeofEnglishtabooculturecanintercommunicatewiththeEnglishpeoplesmoothlyandwithoutoffendingthem，andviceversa。
　　6。Conclusion
　　。Inshort，bycomparison，wecanfindthatbothChineseandEnglishlinguistictaboosreflectpeople’spsychologyforgoodwill，forsafetyandfortuneandpleasantness。TheChineseandEnglishpeoplerestricttheirwordsanddeedsthroughtaboos，tryingtokeepaharmoniousrelationshipbetweenhumanandnature，orbetweenpeopleandsociety。Althoughthetraditionallinguistictabooscontainsuperstitions，ignoranceandnegativeelements，thenewtaboosonracismbearpositivefeatures。Theyareareflectionofpeople’spursuitoffreedomandequality。TheauthorhopesthatthediscussionaboutlinguistictabooshelpsEnglishlearnersimprovetheircommunicativecompetenceandreducemiscommunicationsandconflictsincrossculturecommunications。
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